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2021-12-31T09:14:51Z

Mao You:

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political essays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political essays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations: (Cai Yi 2009:165)

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.（Zheng Zesheng 1981:45）

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.(Breus E.V.2002:58)

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
Anna Leelova Анна Лилова(1985). Ведение в общую теорию перевода [M] Introduction to general translation theory. Москва: Высшая школа Moscow: The Higher School.

Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

20211208 homework

2021-12-31T08:59:17Z

Mao You: /* 毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

说了一会话，临走又送我二两银子。”甄家娘子听了，不觉感伤。一夜无话。

"We talked for a while and give me two bundles of silver when leaving." Hearing this, Mrs. Zhen feel sad and keep silent the whole night.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 07:03, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

“After talking for a while, he gave me two Liang of silver before he left. " The Zhen lady listened and felt sad. I was kept silence all night.

--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477==

次日，早有雨村遣人送了两封银子、四匹锦缎，答谢甄家娘子；又一封密书与封肃，托他向甄家娘子要那娇杏作二房。封肃喜得眉开眼笑，巴不得去奉承太爷，便在女儿前一力撺掇。

The next day, Jia Yucun armer Gelehrter sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank the Zhen lady; Another secret letter to Feng Su Bauer asked him to ask the Zhen lady for the delicate HM Lucky as concubine. Feng Su Bauer was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

The next day, Yucun sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank Zhen lady; He also sent another secret letter to Feng Su, asking him to ask Jiaoxing, the daughter of Zhen Lady, to be his second wife. Feng Su was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 07:56, 5 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

当夜用一乘小轿，便把娇杏送进衙内去了。雨村欢喜，自不必言；又封百金赠与封肃，又送甄家娘子许多礼物，令其且自过活，以待访寻女儿下落。

One evening, Jiaoxing was sent to prison by a small sedan carriage. Undoutedbly, Yucun was very pleased and gave hundreds of golds to Fengsu and many gifts to Zhen's wife so that she can live by herself untill her daugther was found.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 11:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

At that very night he put Jiaoxing in a small sedan-chair and escorted her to the yamen. We don't need to imagine Yucun's satisfaction.He gave Feng Su a hundred pieces of gold and sent Mrs. Zhen many gifts, telling her to take good care of herself that she can find her daughter.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:11, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

却说娇杏那丫头，便是当年回顾雨村的，因偶然一看，便弄出这段奇缘，也是意想不到之事。谁知他命运两济：不承望自到雨村身边只一年，便生一子；又半载，雨村嫡配忽染疾下世，雨村便将他扶作正室夫人。

Now Jiaoxing was the maid who had looked back at Yucun that year, little dreaming that one casual glance could have such an extraordinary outcome.And so lucky she was that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's wife was very ill and died, and then he made Jiaoxing his wife, giving her higher position.

It was said that the girl Jiaoxing, was the one who looked back on Yucun. Because of of a casual glance, they made this fantastic destiny, which was also an unexpected thing. Who knew that his fate was so unpredictable: she was so lucky that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's first wife suddenly died of an illness, and then he took Jiaoxing as his principal wife.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 14:16, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

正是：偶因一回顾，便为人上人。原来雨村因那年士隐赠银之后，他于十六日便起身赴京。大比之期，十分得意，中了进士，选入外班，今已升了本县太爷。

Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. But because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of silver given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate. --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 09:33, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. And because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of tael given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 05:01, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

虽才干优长，未免贪酷，且恃才侮上，那同寅皆侧目而视。不上一年，便被上司参了一本，说他貌似有才，性实狡猾；又题了一两件徇庇蠹役、交结乡绅之事。
Although he was very capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, was too harsh on his subordinates, and relied on his outstanding talents, and showed little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was got goods by his superior and wrote these things into a memorial to the throne, saying that he was cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately; and writing down one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 04:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Although capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, too harsh on his subordinates, relying on his outstanding talents, showing little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was accused by his superior of his cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately and mention of one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 07:03, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

龙颜大怒，即命革职。部文一到，本府各官无不喜悦。那雨村虽十分惭恨，面上却全无一点怨色，仍是嘻笑自若。

The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Rainvillage was smiling as often without any complaint complexion.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 02:29, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Rainvillage was still smiling without any complainment on the face.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 07:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

交代过了公事，将历年所积的宦囊，并家属人等，送至原籍，安顿妥当了，却自己担风袖月，游览天下胜迹。那日偶又游至维扬地方，闻得今年盐政点的是林如海。

After giving official business,leaving the family his accumulated salary for several years and settled them in native home, he had given up high official positions and riches and travelled the famous historical sites everywhere.One day he arrived Weiyang（Yangzhou，Jiangsu Province，China）by accident and heared about the present salt administration officer was Lin Ruhai Salzinspektor.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 04:23, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

这林如海姓林名海，表字如海，乃是前科的探花，今已升兰台寺大夫，本贯姑苏人氏，今钦点为巡盐御史，到任未久。

This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently designated by Imperial appointment as a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short time.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 15:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)
This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently named by Imperial appointment a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short while back.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

原来这林如海之祖，也曾袭过列侯的，今到如海，业经五世。起初只袭三世，因当今隆恩盛德，额外加恩，至如海之父又袭了一代，到了如海便从科第出身。

In fact, the ancestors of Lin Ju-hai had, from years back, successively inherited the title of Marquis, which rank, by its present descent to Ju-hai, had already been enjoyed by five generations. When first conferred, the hereditary right to the title had been limited to three generations; but of late years, by an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence, extraordinary bounty had been superadded; and on the arrival of the succession to the father of Ju-hai, the right had been extended to another degree. It had now descended to Ju-hai, who had, besides this title of nobility, begun his career as a successful graduate. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 00:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

In fact, one of Lin Ju-hai's ancestors five generations earlier had been ennobled as a marquis. The title was originally limited to three generations, but through an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence of the Emperor, it had been extended to Lin Ju-hai’s father. Now Lin Ju-hai himself had been obliged to make his way up through the examination system.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 15:21, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

虽系世禄之家，却是书香之族。只可惜这林家支庶不盛，人丁有限，虽有几门，却与如海俱是堂族，没甚亲支嫡派的。今如海年已五十，只有一个三岁之子，又于去岁亡了；

It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. He was fifty already, and his only child had died last year at the age of three.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:53, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. Now he was fifty years old, and had only a three-year-old son, who died last year.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:13, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

虽有几房姬妾，奈命中无子，亦无可如何之事。只嫡妻贾氏生得一女，乳名黛玉，年方五岁，夫妻爱之如掌上明珠。见他生得聪明俊秀，也欲使他识几个字，不过假充养子，聊解膝下荒凉之叹。

Although he had several concubines, he was doomed to have no son (to inherit the family line). Only lady Merchant, his legal wife, gave birth to a daughter, Mascara Jade Forest, aged five. The couple doted on their daughter like a pearl on the palm of their eyes. Lin Ruhai wanted to teach him to read, because he was smart and handsome, and Lin Ruhai wanted to ease the loneliness of not having a son by pretending to adopt him.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 05:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Although he had several concubines, he had no son in his life, and nothing could be done about it. The first wife, Min Merchant, had a daughter named Mascara Jade Forest, who was five years old and loved by the couple as a jewel. Seeing that she looked smart and beautiful, they also wanted to make her literate, but raised her as a son to relieve the sorrow of no son. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:44, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

且说贾雨村在旅店偶感风寒，愈后又因盘费不继，正欲得一个居停之所，以为息肩之地。偶遇两个旧友，认得新盐政，知他正要请一西席教训女儿，遂将雨村荐进衙门去。

The story goes that Rainvillage Merchant caught a cold at the inn and recovered. He wanted to get a place to stay but he could not afford the fee. He met two old friends who got acquainted the new official of salt (Ruhai Forest) and knew that Forest was about to hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Rainvillage to the government office.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The story goes that Rainvillage Merchant caught a cold occasionally at the inn, after recovering his money almost running out. He wanted to get a place to rest himself. He came across two old friends who acquainted with the new official of salt, knowing that he would hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Rainvillage to the government office.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

这女学生年纪幼小，身体又弱，功课不限多寡，其馀不过两个伴读丫鬟，故雨村十分省力，正好养病。看看又是一载有馀，不料女学生之母贾氏夫人一病而亡。

The girl student was young and in poor health, the number of her assignments unnessesary with two servant girls, so Yucun needed less effort and could convalesce. Unexpectedly, the girl's mother, Ms.Jia died of illness after nearly a year.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

The female pupil was youthful in years and delicate in physique, so that her lessons were irregular. There were only two waiting girls, who remained in attendance during the hours of study, so that Yue-ts'un was spared considerable trouble and had a suitable opportunity to attend to the improvement of his health.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:50, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

女学生奉侍汤药，守丧尽礼，过于哀痛，素本怯弱，因此旧病复发，有好些时不曾上学。雨村闲居无聊，每当风日晴和，饭后便出来闲步。这一日偶至郊外，意欲赏鉴那村野风光。

The girl was dutiful in her attendance during her mother's sickness, and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Being unable for a considerable time to prosecute her studies, Yue-ts'un lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals.One day by some accident, walking beyond the suburbs he came up to a spot encircled by luxuriant clumps of trees and thick groves of bamboos.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 08:07, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

During her mother's sickness, the girl was dutiful in her attendance and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Unable to prosecute her studies for a considerable time, Rainvillage Merchant lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals. One day by some accident, he walked to the countryside to enjoy the scenery.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

信步至一山环水漩、茂林修竹之处，隐隐有座庙宇，门巷倾颓，墙垣剥落。有额题曰“智通寺”，门旁又有一副旧破的对联云：身后有馀忘缩手，眼前无路想回头。

He walked to a place with luxuriant woods and bamboo groves which is surrounded by hill and streams.And there was a temple half hidden among the foliage whose entrance was in ruins and walls were crumbling. There was an inscription above the gate: Zhi tong Temple. And flanking the gate was a couplet: Though plenty was left after death, one forgot to hold his hand back. Only at the end of the road does one think of turning on to the right back.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:04, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Walking to a place surrounded by mountains, swirling water and lush forests and bamboos, there is a temple. The doors and alleys are falling and the walls are peeling off. There is a forehead titled "Zhitong Temple", and there is an old broken couplet beside the door: I forgot to withdraw my hand behind me, and there is no way to turn back.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 02:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

雨村看了，因想道：“这两句文虽甚浅，其意则深。也曾游过些名山大刹，倒不曾见过这话头。其中想必有个翻过筋斗来的，也未可知。

Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.

Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 03:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

何不进去一访？”走入看时，只有一个龙锺老僧在那里煮粥。雨村见了，却不在意。及至问他两句话，那老僧既聋且昏，又齿落舌钝，所答非所问。雨村不耐烦，仍退出来。When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.

When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care about him. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:33, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

意欲到那村肆中沽饮三杯，以助野趣，于是移步行来。刚入肆门，只见座上吃酒之客，有一人起身大笑，接了出来，口内说：“奇遇，奇遇！”
He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink, for the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”

He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink to take the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

雨村忙看时，此人是都中古董行中贸易，姓冷号子兴的，旧日在都相识。雨村最赞这冷子兴是个有作为大本领的人，这子兴又借雨村斯文之名，故二人最相投契。
Yu Cun was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Zixing Leng. They met in the city before. Yucun praised him as a competent person, and he borrowed yucun’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Leng Zixing who he’ve met in the city before. Rainvillage Merchant praised him most as a competent person, and he borrowed Rainvillage Merchant’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:34, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

雨村忙亦笑问：“老兄何日到此？弟竟不知。今日偶遇，真奇缘也！”子兴道：“去年岁底到家，今因还要入都，从此顺路找个敝友，说一句话。

"When did you get here?" Rainvillage Merchant eagerly inquired also smilingly. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is positively a strange piece of good fortune." "I went home," Zi Xing replied, "at the end of last year, but now as I return to the capital again, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend of mine and talk some matters over.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:39, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

"When did you get here?" Rainvillage Merchant eagerly and smilingly inquired. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is a strange piece of good fortune."
"I went home," Tzu-hsing replied, "about the close of last year, but now as I am again bound to the capital, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend and have a chat.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:20, 8 December 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:39, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

承他的情，留我多住两日。我也无甚紧事，且盘桓两日，待月半时也就起身了。今日敝友有事，我因闲走到此，不期这样巧遇。”一面说，一面让雨村同席坐了，另整上酒肴来。

He had the kindness to press me to stay with him for a couple of days longer. As I also have no urgent business to attend to, I am tarrying a few days, but purpose starting about the middle of the moon. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting of such a fortunate meeting." While speaking, he invited Rainvillage Merchant to sit down at the same table, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and eatables. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:21, 8 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:40, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

“He was so kind that he asked me to stay for another couple of days. As I had no other urgencies to attend to, I stayed as he expected. When we chatted til the moon was high above the sky, I got up and left alone. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting such an encounter." While speaking, he invited Rain Village Merchant to sit down with him, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and dishes.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 07:52, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

二人闲谈慢饮，叙些别后之事。雨村因问：“近日都中可有新闻没有？”子兴道：“倒没有什么新闻，倒是老先生的贵同宗家出了一件小小的异事。”

Over drinking, they two talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Rain Village Merchant asked: Is there anything new in the capital city? Joker answered，“Nothing new. But in your dignified remote relative's house there is indeed a strange thing.”--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:49, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

They two drank and talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Rain Village Merchant asked: "Is there anything new in the capital city?" Joker answered，“Nothing new. But there happened a strange thing in your dignified remote relative's family.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

雨村笑道：“弟族中无人在都，何谈及此？”子兴笑道：“你们同姓，岂非一族？”雨村问：“是谁家？”子兴笑道：“荣国贾府中，可也不玷辱老先生的门楣了。”

Rain-Village laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Zi Xing said: “You have the same surname, are you not a family?” Rain-Village asked: “Who?” Zi Xing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:20, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Lëng Dsï-hsing said: “You have the same surname, aren’t you the same family?” Rainvillage Merchant asked: “Who?” Lëng Dsï-hsing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 23:48, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

雨村道：“原来是他家。若论起来，寒族人丁却自不少，东汉贾复以来，支派繁盛，各省皆有，谁能逐细考查？若论荣国一支，却是同谱。但他那等荣耀，我们不便去认他，故越发生疏了。”

Rainvillage Merchant said: "It's his house. If discussed explicitly, the people of Han's family were of great quantity since the Eastern Han Dynasty of Jiafu. Their branches were numerous in each province, who can examine one by one? If only discussed the branch of Rongguo, they were the same. But the Rongguo were glorious, it was inconvenient for us to make a connection with them, so we were getting more and more unfamiliar. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 08:22, 4 December 2021 (UTC)
Yucun said: "It turned out to be his family. If you talk about it, there are many Han people. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the tribe has been prosperous and there are all provinces. Who can examine it carefully? . But he is so glorious, it is inconvenient for us to recognize him, so we have become more and more estranged."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

子兴叹道：“老先生休这样说。如今的这荣、宁两府，也都萧索了，不比先时的光景。”雨村道：“当日宁、荣两宅人口也极多，如何便萧索了呢？”子兴道：“正是，说来也话长。”
Zi Xing sighed, "Old Mr. Xiu said this. The Rong and Ning residences are now depressed, not as good as the previous conditions." Rain-Village said: "The Ning and Rong residences had a large population that day. Is it done?" Zi Xing said: "Exactly, it's a long story."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:01, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
The son sighed: "This is what old Hugh said. The provinces of Rong and Ning are now deserted, not as they were in the past." Rain village way: "that day ning, rong two house population is also very much, how then deserted?" Zi Xing said, "Exactly. It's a long story."--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:33, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

雨村道：“去岁我到金陵时，因欲游览六朝遗迹，那日进了石头城，从他宅门前经过：街东是宁国府，街西是荣国府，二宅相连，竟将大半条街占了。
Yucun said: "Last year when I went to Jinlin because I wanted to visit The Remaining Vestiges of the Six Dynasties, that day into the Stone city, from the front of his house through: street east is Ningguofu, street west is Rongguofu, two houses connected, unexpectedly occupied half of the street.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:32, 7 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:01, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Yucun said, "when I came to Jinling last year, I wanted to visit the ruins of the Six Dynasties. On that day, I entered the stone city and passed in front of his house: Ningguo house is in the east of the street, Rongguo house is in the west, and the two houses are connected, occupying more than half of the street.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

大门外虽冷落无人，隔着围墙一望，里面厅殿楼阁，也还都峥嵘轩峻；就是后边一带花园里，树木山石，也都还有葱蔚洇润之气：那里像个衰败之家？”
Although deserted outside the gate, across the wall to see the hall hall pavilions, are also lofty xuan Jun; Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: it did not look at all like a run-down house--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Although deserted outside the gate, the hall and pavilions were also lofty and grand seen across the wall.Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: how did it look like a run-down house?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:14, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

子兴笑道：“亏你是进士出身，原来不通。古人有言：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’如今虽说不似先年那样兴盛，较之平常仕宦人家，到底气象不同。

Zi Xing laughed and said, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. There is an ancient saying: ‘old institutions die hard'. Now, though not as prosperous as in previous years, the atmosphere is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:09, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Zi Xing chuckled, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. As a old saying goes, ‘old institutions die hard’. Now, though not as prosperous as before, the splendor is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:51, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

如今生齿日繁，事务日盛，主仆上下都是安富尊荣，运筹谋画的竟无一个；那日用排场，又不能将就省俭。如今外面的架子虽没很倒，内囊却也尽上来了。这也是小事。

Their family members are growing, their commitments are increasing, and both masters and servants are used to lavishly controlling it. However no one thinks of the future. They squander money every day and can't save at all. On the surface, they look as noble as before, but their wallets are almost empty. However, this is not their biggest trouble.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

In Jia Mansion, there are many people to bring up, and household duties are getting more and more day by day. Masters and servants, from top to bottom, enjoy glory and wealth but no one to plan. They squander money every day and can't save at all. Although they still extravagant on the surface as ever, their wallets are almost empty. and this is not counted the biggest trouble. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:47, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

更有一件大事：谁知这样钟鸣鼎食的人家儿，如今养的儿孙，竟一代不如一代了。”雨村听说，也道：“这样诗礼之家，岂有不善教育之理？别门不知，只说这宁、荣两宅，是最教子有方的，何至如此？”

There is one more important event: Who knows that the children of such a luxurious family, the children and grandchildren are not as good as previous generations." When Djia Yü-tsun heard about it, he also said: "Is there any reason for such a family who always study and pay attention to ethics for generations is bad at education? Although I don't know the situation of other families, it is said that Ning-guo-Anwesen and Jung-guo-Anwesen are the most skillful in teaching children. How did they get to such a situation ? " --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 15:37, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

That's not the worst thing. Who will know that the children of such a noble clan can be inferior to the last." Hearing about that, Yucun replied:"a family so cultures and versed in etiquette doesn't know the importance of education? Although I don't know other families, I've always heard that these two houses take great efforts to educate their children. How did they fall to such a situation?"--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 12:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

子兴叹道：“正说的是这两门呢！等我告诉你：当日宁国公是一母同胞弟兄两个。宁公居长，生了两个儿子。宁公死后，长子贾代化袭了官，也养了两个儿子：长子贾敷，八九岁上死了；

"It's these two houses I'm talking about!" Son Prosperity signed, "Just let me tell you: the Duke of Ningguo and the Duke of Rongguo were brothers by the same mother. The Duke of Ningguo, the elder, had two sons, and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 05:14, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Zi Xing sighed, "I was about to say something about these two families! Let me tell you: the Duke of Rongguo, as he is now called, had two brothers from the same mother. Lord Ning was the eldest brother and had two sons，and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 08:32, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

只剩了一个次子贾敬，袭了官，如今一味好道，只爱烧丹炼汞，别事一概不管。幸而早年留下一个儿子，名唤贾珍，因他父亲一心想作神仙，把官倒让他袭了。

Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now he devoted himself only to Taoism and alchemy, and did nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant, for his father had set his heart on becoming a fairy, so he succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:30, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now Honor Merchant devotes himself entirely to Taoism and alchemy, and does nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant. For his father has set his heart on becoming immortal, Treasure Merchant succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:36, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

他父亲又不肯住在家里，只在都中城外，和那些道士们胡羼。这位珍爷也生了一个儿子，今年才十六岁，名叫贾蓉。如今敬老爷不管事了。

His father refused to stay at home, but rather preferred to fool around with those Taoist priests. This Master Treasure Merchant also has a son called Prosperity Merchant, who’s only 16 years old. Nowadays Lord Honor Merchant is no longer in charge. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:27, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

His father is unwilling to live at home, but prefers to wander around the city to fool around with those Taoist priests. Treasure Merchant also has a son named Prosperity Merchant who is 16 years old. Now, Lord Honor Merchant is no longer in charge. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:42, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

这珍爷那里干正事，只一味高乐不了，把那宁国府竟翻过来了，也没有敢来管他的人。再说荣府你听，方才所说异事就出在这里。

Treasure Merchant would not do any proper thing but to amuse himself. Even if he turns the Ning-Guo House upside down, no one there dares to stop him. Then I will tell you about Rong House where the strange thing that I just mentioned happened. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:24, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Treasure Merchant would not do any his proper business，but only amuse himself，and though he turned rabbit in Ning Guo Mansion，there is no one who dare to limit him.And I must tell you that some queer things just happen in Rong Mansion.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 14:04, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

自荣公死后，长子贾代善袭了官，娶的是金陵世家史侯的小姐为妻。生了两个儿子：长名贾赦，次名贾政。如今代善早已去世，太夫人尚在。

Since the death of Lord Rong(Jia Yuan), the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and get merried with the daughter of an aristocratic family in Jinling. They have two sons: the elder son is called Pardon Merchant, the second son is called Master Merchant. Now Jia Daishan has already passed away with his wife still alive. --[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:06, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

Since the death of Lord Rong（Jia Yuan), the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and married Shi Hou’s daughter from an aristocratic family in Gold Mausoleum as his wife. They had two children: the elder son Pardon Merchant, and the second named Master Merchant. Today Daishan has long passed away, and his wife is still alive.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:02, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

长子贾赦袭了官，为人却也中平，也不管理家事。惟有次子贾政，自幼酷喜读书，为人端方正直。祖父锺爱，原要他从科甲出身。

The eldest son Pardon Merchant, inherited the official position from his ancestors but he was not top-notch and did not manage the family affairs as well. Only his second son, Master Merchant, loved to read since childhood and was a man of upright. His grandfather (Jia Yuan) like him the most and originally planed to let him take the imperial examination before becoming an official.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 08:02, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Their elder son Pardon Merchant inherited the official title; he was moderate and often remained neutral, and did not manage the family affairs. Only the younger son, Master Merchant, was fond of studying as a child and was a man of upright so that he was his grandfather's (Jia Yuan) favorite, and he hoped to make a career for himself through the imperial examinations. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 09:05, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

不料代善临终遗本一上，皇上怜念先臣，即叫长子袭了官；又问还有几个儿子，立刻引见，又将这政老爷赐了个额外主事职衔，叫他入部习学，如今现已升了员外郎。

Unexpectedly, when Djia Dai-schan (Jia Daishan) died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons there were and ordered them to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Master Merchant, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Unexpectedly, when Jia Daishan died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons he had and ordered his sons to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Jia Zheng, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:53, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

这政老爷的夫人王氏，头胎生的公子名叫贾珠，十四岁进学，后来娶了妻，生了子，不到二十岁，一病就死了。第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。

Lady King --- the wife of Master Merchant. Their first child was a son named Bead Merchant, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and gave birth to a son, who died of an illness before the age of twenty. The second child was a young girl, born on the first day of the year. It was very surprising.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:45, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Mrs. Wang --- the wife of Master Merchant gave birth to her first child a boy named Bead Merchant, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and got a son. But Jia Zhu died of an illness before the age of twenty. The couple’s second child was a girl born on the first day of the year, which was surprising.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:17, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

不想隔了十几年，又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。你道是新闻不是？”

Surprisingly, Mrs Wang gave birth to a boy after more than ten years and it is even strange that the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:25, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Surprisingly, after an interval of more than ten years, Mrs Wang gave birth to another male child, and even more miraculously, the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

雨村笑道：“果然奇异。只怕这人的来历不小。”子兴冷笑道：“万人都这样说，因而他祖母爱如珍宝。那年周岁时，政老爷试他将来的志向，便将世上所有的东西摆了无数叫他抓。

Rainvillage Merchant laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of history." Leng Zixing laughed coldly and said, "Everyone says so, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. That year, when he was one year old, Mr. Master Jia tested his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:17, 6 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu Cun laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of fame" Zi Xing laughed ruthlessly and said, "Everyone says like this, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. When Jia Baoyu was one year old, Mr. Zheng wanted to test his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:46, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

谁知他一概不取，伸手只把些脂粉钗环抓来玩弄。那政老爷便不喜欢，说将来不过酒色之徒，因此不甚爱惜。独那太君还是命根子一般。说

But he didn't catch anything, only reach his hand for some powder,hairpin and ring to play. Mr.Zheng was not satisfied with his action,and thought him as a gambler in the future.Therefore, Politic Merchant didn't show his preference toward Precious Jade Merchant,but that Grandma Merchant still regarded him as her treature,and said:--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 10:01, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

However, he did not take any of them, but only reached his hands out for some powders, hairpins and rings to play with. That action did not please sir Zheng at all, what’s more, sir Zheng said he would be only a voluptuary in the future. Therefore, sir Zheng did not particularly cherish Baoyu, however, lady dowager still loved him as if he was the most preciou treasure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 05:28, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

说来又奇：如今长了十来岁，虽然淘气异常，但聪明乖觉，百个不及他一个。说起孩子话来也奇，他说：‘女儿是水做的骨肉，男子是泥做的骨肉。我见了女儿便清爽，见了男子便觉浊臭逼人。’

Strange to say: now he is ten years old, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, ‘Girls are made of water, men of mud. He will feel debonaire when he see girls, but when he see men, what he can feel is only squalidness.’--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:34, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

It's strange to notice that now he is ten years more older, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, "Girls are made of water, men of mud. I qwill feel debonaire when I see girls, but when I see men, what I can feel is only squalidness."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:18, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

你道好笑不好笑？将来色鬼无疑了。”雨村罕然厉色道：“非也。可惜你们不知道这人的来历，大约政老前辈也错以淫魔色鬼看待了。

"Don't you think it's ridiculous? He or she will be a lecher in the future undoubtedly." Jia Yucun said with a serious look: "Not true. Unfortunately, you do not know the identity of this person, may be the old senior Master Merchant may also wrongly regard him or her as a lewd."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:14, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

“Have you realized the facetiosity of it? He or she will be beyond all doubt a lecher.” Rain Village Merchant said with stern countenance: “ it is absolutely not the truth. It is a pity that you are insensible of the background of this person and senior Master Merchant may also mistakenly regarded him or her as a lewd demon”.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

若非多读书识事，加以致知格物之功、悟道参玄之力者，不能知也。”子兴见他说得这样重大，忙请教其故。雨村道：“天地生人，除大仁大恶，馀者皆无大异。

If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquiring and truth-enlightening, he or she would be ignorant of it. Son Prosperity believed that Rain Village Merchant took it so seriously that he was bursting with impatience to make clear the reasons within it. Rain Village Merchant asserted: “the universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:36, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquired and truth-enlightened, he or she would be ignorant.After seeing that Yucun took it so seriously, Zixing couldn't wait to ask him the reasons.Yucun asserted: “The universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil."--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:24, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

若大仁者则应运而生，大恶者则应劫而生；运生世治，劫生世危。尧、舜、禹、汤、文、武、周、召、孔、孟、董、韩、周、程、朱、张，皆应运而生者；

The great benevolence was born in the time of good fortune,the great evil was born in the time of bad fortune. The former was benefit to the world,the latter was harmful to the world.Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, were all born at the historic moment of good fortune；--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:20, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If the great benevolence emerged as the times demanded, the great evil was born emerged as the calamity demanded. The former was beneficial to the world, while the latter was harmful to the world. Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, all born emerged as the times demanded.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

蚩尤、共工、桀、纣、始皇、王莽、曹操、桓温、安禄山、秦桧等，皆应劫而生者。大仁者修治天下，大恶者扰乱天下。清明灵秀，天地之正气，仁者之所秉也；残忍乖僻，天地之邪气，恶者之所秉也。

Chiyou, Gonggong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan, and Qin Hui all emerged as the calamity demanded. Great benevolence governs the world, great evil disturbs the world. Be sober-minded and full of ingenuity, absorbing the righteousness of heaven and earth are the characteristics of merciful men; on the contrary, be cruel and eccentric, absorbing the evil of heaven and earth, are the characteristics of wicked men.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:41, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Chi You, Gong Gong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan and Qin Hui were all born in response to the tribulation. Those who are benevolent cultivate and rule the world, while those who are evil disturb the world. The clear, bright, spiritual and beautiful, the righteousness of heaven and earth, is held by the benevolent; the cruel and perverse, the evil of heaven and earth, is held by the evil.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

今当祚永运隆之日，太平无为之世，清明灵秀之气所秉者，上自朝廷，下至草野，比比皆是。所馀之秀气漫无所归，遂为甘露，为和风，洽然溉及四海。

In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, there are many people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit are numberless. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:58, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

彼残忍乖邪之气，不能荡溢于光天化日之下，遂凝结充塞于深沟大壑之中。偶因风荡，或被云摧，略有摇动感发之意，一丝半缕误而逸出者，值灵秀之气适过，正不容邪，邪复妒正，两不相下；

His cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in broad daylight, so it condensed and filled deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace of half a wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, right should not be evil, evil should be jealous of right, and the two are not the same;--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Its cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in the light of the day, so it condensed and filled in deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace or half wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, the right is incompatible with the evil, and the evil should be jealous of the right, and the two are on the opposite sides.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 08:59, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

如风水雷电地中既遇，既不能消，又不能让，必致搏击掀发。既然发泄，那邪气亦必赋之于人。假使或男或女偶秉此气而生者，上则不能为仁人为君子，下亦不能为大凶大恶。

Like the wind, water, thunder, lightning meeting each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once it lets off, people will be endowed with evil influence. If men and women were both born on this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to villains.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If wind, water, thunder, lightning meet each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once the evil air is let off, people will be endowed with it. If men or women are born with this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to extremely vicious villains.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:13, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

置之千万人之中，其聪俊灵秀之气，则在千万人之上；其乖僻邪谬不近人情之态，又在千万人之下。若生于公侯富贵之家，则为情痴情种；若生于诗书清贫之族，则为逸士高人；纵然生于薄祚寒门，甚至为奇优，为名娼，亦断不至为走卒健仆，甘遭庸夫驱制。

This kind of persons are usually outstanding. Their intelligence and beauty are above thousands of people. And their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be persons of constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be used by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

This kind of people are usually prominent. Their intelligence and beauty are above millions of people. But their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be people with constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be controlled by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 04:15, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

如前之许由、陶潜、阮籍、嵇康、刘伶、王谢二族、顾虎头、陈后主、唐明皇、宋徽宗、刘庭芝、温飞卿、米南宫、石曼卿、柳耆卿、秦少游，近日倪云林、唐伯虎、祝枝山，再如李龟年、黄幡绰、敬新磨、卓文君、红拂、薛涛、崔莺、朝云之流：此皆易地则同之人也。”

Such as the previous generation Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun: they are the kind of people born when the rectitude and the evil spirits fight each other. This kind of people has both the rectitude and the evil spirits.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 11:37, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Like the previous generation: Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun. Though this kind of people didn’t live in the same period of time, didn’t have the same experience, they had the same ambition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

子兴道：“依你说，成则公侯败则贼了？”雨村道：“正是这意。你还不知，我自革职以来，这两年遍游各省，也曾遇见两个异样孩子，所以方才你一说这宝玉，我就猜着了八九也是这一派人物。

Antiquary said: “ As you said, the winner will be the duke, and the loser will be the traitor?”Rainvillage Merchant said: “ This is what I was talking about. You didn’t know, that since I was removed from the position, I traveled around all the provinces, and also met some unusual boys, so when you just talked about Precious Jade, I guessed that he was such a boy, too.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:52, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Zixing said, "according to you, if you become a duke, if you lose, you will become a thief." Yucun said, "that's exactly what you mean. You don't know that I have traveled all over the provinces in the past two years since I was dismissed. I have met two different children, so I guessed that 89 is also a figure of this school.

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

不用远说，只这金陵城内钦差金陵省体仁院总裁甄家，你可知道？”子兴道：“谁人不知，这甄府就是贾府老亲，他们两家来往极亲热的。就是我也和他家往来非止一日了。”
Needless to say, it's only House of Merchant, President of Nanjing Institute of physical benevolence, who is an imperial envoy in Jinling City. Do you know? " Antiquary, "no one knows that House of Merchant is the old relative of preasure's house. Their two families are very friendly. Even I have been with him for a long time."

Do you know zhen Jia, president of Qinchai Tiren Academy of Jinling Province in Jinling City?" Zi Xing said, "Who knows? Zhen Fu is jia fu's old man, and the two families are very close to each other. Even I have been with them a long time."--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 11:00, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

雨村笑道：“去岁我在金陵，也曾有人荐我到甄府处馆。我进去看其光景，谁知他家那等荣贵，却是个富而好礼之家，倒是个难得之馆。但是这个学生虽是启蒙，却比一个举业的还劳神。

Rain village Merchant smiled and said:”When I was in Nanjing last year, someone recommended me to teach in the House of Merchant. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the scientific examination.”--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu Cun smiled and said:”When I was in Jinling last year, someone recommended me to teach at Zhen Mansion. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the imperial examination.”--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:15, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

说起来更可笑，他说：‘必得两个女儿陪着我读书，我方能认得字，心上也明白；不然，我心里自己糊涂。’又常对着跟他的小厮们说：‘这“女儿”两个字极尊贵极清净的，比那瑞兽珍禽、奇花异草更觉稀罕尊贵呢。
Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:18, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

你们这种浊口臭舌，万万不可唐突了这两个字，要紧，要紧！但凡要说的时节，必用净水香茶漱了口方可；设若失错，便要凿牙穿眼的。’其暴虐顽劣，种种异常。

You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:55, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 03:15, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

只放了学进去，见了那些女儿们，其温厚和平，聪敏文雅，竟变了一个样子。因此，他令尊也曾下死笞楚过几次，竟不能改。每打的吃疼不过时，他便姐姐妹妹的乱叫起来。
After class, he saw those daughters, who were gentle, tranquil and clever looking different. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.

After class, he went in and met those daughters changed, who were gentle, peaceful, intelligent and elegant. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 14:07, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

后来听得里面女儿们拿他取笑：‘因何打急了，只管叫姐妹作什么？莫不叫姐妹们去讨情讨饶？你岂不愧些？’他回答的最妙，他说：‘急痛之时，只叫姐姐妹妹字样，或可解疼，也未可知，因叫了一声，果觉疼得好些。

Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: "Why do you call sisters when you are in pain? Why not let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?" He answered it best, saying, ‘In a time of acute pain, if I call the sisters, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called them'.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 13:45, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: "Why do you call sisters when you are in pain? Do you want to let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?" He answered it best, saying, "In a time of acute pain, if I call the sisters, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called them".--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

遂得了秘法，每疼痛之极，便连叫姐妹起来了。’你说可笑不可笑？为他祖母溺爱不明，每因孙辱师责子，我所以辞了馆出来的。这等子弟，必不能守祖、父基业，从师友规劝的。只可惜他家几个好姊妹都是少有的。”

So he got the secret method, and every time he felt the pain, he called his sisters. " Do you also feel ridiculous? And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I as his teacher was usually insulted and blamed. So I resigned from there. The children like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends. But it's a pity becasue several sisters in his family are rarely good. "--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:52, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I was usually insulted and blamed as his teacher. Such child like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

子兴道：“便是贾府中现在三个也不错。政老爷的长女名元春，因贤孝才德，选入宫作女史去了。二小姐乃是赦老爷姨娘所出，名迎春；三小姐政老爷庶出，名探春；四小姐乃宁府珍爷的胞妹，名惜春：

Zixing said, "The three girls in Jia's mansion are not bad either. Master Merchant's eldest daughter was named First Spring Merchant. Because of her virtue and filial piety, she was chosen to be a female historian in the court. The second lady was born to Pardon Merchant'concubine, her name was Spring Pleasure Merchant; The third lady was born to Master Merchant's concubine and was named Seeking-Spring Merchant. The fourth lady is the sister of Treasure Merchant in Ning' mansion, named Cherishing Spring Merchant:

“ The three girls in the Jia's mansion aren ’ t bad either ,” rejoined Zixing .“ Master Merchant ’s eldest daughter First Spring Merchant was chosen to be a Lady － Clerk in the palace of the heir apparent because of her goodness , filial piety and talents . The second , Spring Pleasure Merchant, is Pardon Merchant’s daughter by a concubine . The third Seeking-Spring Merchant , is Master Merchant ’ s daughter a concubine . The fourth , Cherishing Spring Merchant , is the younger sister of Treasure Merchant of the Ning Mansion .--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

因史老夫人极爱孙女，都跟在祖母这边，一处读书，听得个个不错。”雨村道：“更妙在甄家风俗：女儿之名，亦皆从男子之名；不似别人家里，另外用这些‘春’、‘红’、‘香’、‘玉’等艳字。

As Grandma History is so fondly attached to her granddaughters , they come , for the most part , over to their grandmother ’s place to prosecute their studies together , and each one of these girls is , I hear , without a fault .Rainvillage Merchant said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

“As Grandma History is so attached to these grand-daughters that she makes them study in the Rong Mansion near her, and I hear good reports of them all.” Rainvillage Merchant said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 16:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

何得贾府亦落此俗套？”子兴道：“不然。只因现今大小姐是正月初一所生，故名元春，馀者都从了‘春’字；上一排的却也是从弟兄而来的。现有对证：目今你贵东家林公的夫人，即荣府中赦、政二公的胞妹，在家时名字唤贾敏。

But how is it that the Family Merchant have likewise fallen into this convention？"
"Not so！" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month，that she was called First Spring Merchant；And the rest followed Spring in their names. But the names of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Forest，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Clever Merchant. --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

But how could that the Family Merchant have also become so vulgar in terms of the name of the daughters？"
"It’s not what you think" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month in the lunar year, that she was called First Spring Merchant；And then the rest had Spring in their names too. But all the names of the girls of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Forest，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Clever Merchant.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:49, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

不信时你回去细访可知。”雨村拍手笑道：“是极。我这女学生名叫黛玉，他读书凡‘敏’字，他皆念作‘密’字；写字遇着‘敏’字，亦减一二笔。我心中每每疑惑，今听你说，是为此无疑矣。

If you don’t believe me, check up carefully when you go back. Rainvillage pounded the table with a laugh. That’s right. The name of my girl student is Mascara Jade. She always pronounces min as mi and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

If you don’t believe me, inquire carefully when you go back. Rainvillage pounded the table and smiled :”That's right. The name of my girl student is Mascara Jade. She always pronounces ‘Min’ as ‘Mi’ and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. “--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

怪道我这女学生言语举止另是一样，不与凡女子相同，度其母不凡，故生此女。今知为荣府之外孙，又不足罕矣。可惜上月其母竟亡故了。”子兴叹道：“老姊妹三个，这是极小的，又没了；

It's strange that my female student's speech and behavior are different. She is not the same as other ordinary ladies. Hence,I guess that her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not strange that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 02:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

No wonder that my female student's speech and behavior are unique and she is not the same as other ordinary ladies. That's because her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not suprising that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 10:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

长一辈的姊妹，一个也没了。只看这小一辈的将来的东床何如呢。”雨村道：“正是。方才说政公已有一个衔玉之子，又有长子所遗弱孙，这赦老竟无一个不成？”

There are no elder sisters. Then we just look forward to the younger generation's son-in-laws. Rainvillage Merchant says: That's it. I have just heard that Master Merchant has a son, Prescious Jade Merchant who is born with a jade. And he has a grandson who is his eldest son's child. Doesn't Pardon Merchant have any children?--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:09, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

“No one's left in the elder sisters, Let's just see what will happen to the younger generation's sons-in-law.” “Exactly.”Jia Yucun says:“I've just heard that Master Zheng's got a another son, and his eldest son had given him a grandson. What's the matter with Master Xie? He hasn't had one yet!”--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 02:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

子兴道：“政公既有玉儿之后，其妾又生了一个，倒不知其好歹。只眼前现有二子一孙，却不知将来何如。若问那赦老爷，也有一子，名叫贾琏，今已二十多岁了，亲上做亲，娶的是政老爷夫人王氏内侄女，今已娶了四五年。

Zi Xing says:“After Master Zheng had Yu er, his concubine gave birth to another child, don't know whether it is good or bad. Right now they already have two children and a grandson, but not knowing what should do in the future. Master Xie also has a son named Jia Lian, who is about 20 years old now. Jia Lian married Master Zheng's wife Wang's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”

Zi Xing said:" Master Merchant's concubine had given birth to another kid for him after having the son named Precious Jade, and didn't know the kid good or bad. So he only had two sons and a grandson at that time and didn't know the future held. Pardon Merchant also had a son named Romance Merchant, who was about 20 years old. Romance Merchant married Master Merchant's wife Lady King's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:35, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

这位琏爷身上现捐了个同知，也是不喜正务的；于世路上好机变，言谈去得，所以目今只在乃叔政老爷家住，帮着料理家务。谁知自娶了这位奶奶之后，倒上下无人不称颂他的夫人，琏爷倒退了一舍之地：模样又极标致，言谈又爽利，心机又极深细，竟是个男人万不及一的。”

Romance Merchant had now paid for an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs; he was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Master Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. There is no idea that since marrying this difficult girl, no one in the house would not praise his wife, and that Romance Merchant would not be able to match her: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:11, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

Romance Merchant had now bought a title as an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs. He was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Maister Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. After he married his wife, everyone praised her, and that made Romance Merchant less popular: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 10:49, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

雨村听了，笑道：“可知我言不谬了。你我方才所说的这几个人，只怕都是那正邪两赋而来一路之人，未可知也。”子兴道：“正也罢，邪也罢，只顾算别人家的账，你也吃杯酒才好。”

After hearing this, Yucun smiled and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have the temperament of justice and evil.” Zixing said: “whether these people are just or evil, don't just talk about other people's gossip, and also remember to drink more.” --[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 08:36, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

After hearing this, Rain Village laughed and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have both good and evil temperament.” Son Happy said: “It doesn't matter whether these people are good or evil, you should also take a drink rather than only talking about other people's gossip.”--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

雨村道：“只顾说话，就多吃了几杯。”子兴笑道：“说着别人家的闲话，正好下酒，即多吃几杯何妨？”雨村向窗外看道：“天也晚了，仔细关了城，我们慢慢进城再谈，未为不可。”

Rain Village said: "I have to drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Son Happy said while laughing: " Help yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Rain Village looked out the window and said:" It's getting dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate is shut." --[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant said: "I accidentally drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Zixing said while laughing: " Enjoy yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Yucun looked out the window and said:" It has been dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate shuts."--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

于是二人起身，算还酒钱。方欲走时，忽听得后面有人叫道：“雨村兄恭喜了！特来报个喜信的。”雨村忙回头看时……要知是谁，且听下回分解。

So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Rainvillage Merchant. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Rainvillage Merchant looks back at once... Who is it? Please expect the next chapter--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 05:03, 5 December 2021 (UTC).

So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Yucun. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Yucun looked back at once... Who was it? Please expect the next chapter.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:19, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

外班──清代会试考取进士后，留在朝中任官者称“京官”，分发外地任地方官者称“外班”。因新官分发到地方后要候补，按班次任官，故称“外班”。同寅皆侧目而视──同寅：即同僚。

"Wai Ban"(Foreign class) -- After passing the highest imperial examinations in Qing Dynasty, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", while those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officers who were distributed to the local needed wait for the appointment, according to the official appointment system established in Qing Dynasty.so it was called "outside the shift". Yin(colleagues)all sidelong glance ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:17, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Foreign class -- After the qing dynasty imperial examinations, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", and those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officer distribution to the local to wait for the officer, according to the shift, so called "outside the shift". With Yin all sidelong eyes and look ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“百僚师师，百工惟时……同寅协恭，和衷哉。”寅时是朝臣上朝之时，故称。侧目而视：斜着眼看。语出《战国策·秦策一》：“(苏秦)将说楚王，路过洛阳。
Code out of "Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo" : "100 liao division division, 100 work but time...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." Yin shi is the court when the court, so called. Sidelong: to look sideways. Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:12, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The code is out of ''Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo'' : Numerous bureaucrats and teachers work only a hundred hours...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." The Yin time is the court when raised, so it's called. Sidelook: to look sideways. From ''Warring States policy · Qin policy I'':" Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:57, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

父母闻之，清宫除道，张乐设饮，郊迎三十里；妻侧目而视，倾耳而听；嫂蛇行匍伏，四拜自跪而谢。”原表示敬畏。引申以表示愤怒或不齿。
When his parents heard of it, they cleared the palace and cleaned the road. Zhang Le set up a repast and welcomed thirty miles away far from home. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:53, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
When his parents heard of this, they cleared the palace and Zhang Le set up music and drinks to welcome him to the countryside for thirty miles. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

维扬──扬州(在今江苏省)的别称。大禹所划分的“九州”之一。典出《尚书·夏书·禹贡》：“淮海惟扬州。”“惟”通“维”。

Dimension Poplar- an alternative name for Yangzhou (Jiangsu province). It was one of the "nine states" delineated by the Great Yu. The name is derived from ''Shang Shu - Xia Shu - Yu Gong'': "The Huaihai Sea is only Yangzhou." The word "but" is synonymous with "wei".--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:27, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Dimension Poplar - another name of Yangzhou (in today's Jiangsu Province) which is one of the "Kyushu" divided by Dayu. From the book Shangshu· Xiashu · Yugong "the Huaihai sea Wei Yangzhou” "Wei" is "wei”--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

后人从“惟扬州”截取“惟扬”，又以“维”代“惟”，遂成“维扬”。如北朝周·庾信《哀江南赋》：“淮海维扬，三千馀里。”探花──科举考试中殿试(最高一级考试)一甲第三名(第一名为状元，第二名为榜眼)。

Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Fu on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Huaihai sea is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan）--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 09:04, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Poetic essay on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Weiyang city is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan)--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:15, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

本于唐代的“探花使”，亦称“探花郎”。唐·李淖《秦中岁时记》：“进士杏园初宴，谓之探花宴。差少俊二人为探花使，遍游名园，若它人先折花，二使皆被罚。”

“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao who lived in Tang Dynasty once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

又宋·魏泰《东轩笔录》卷六：“进士及第后，例期集一月……又选最年少者二人为探花使，赋诗，世谓之探花郎。”

Wei Tai in Song Dynasty wrote that in his Dongxuan Bilu (Volume Six): “ In the imperial examination, after winning the imperial examination…… Two young scholars at the celebration were elected as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy .”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 09:19, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Wei Tai wrote in his ''Dongxuan Transcript'' (Volume Six) in Song Dynasty : “Participated in and passed the highest imperial examinations ... then the first two youngest scholars at the examination were chosen as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:55, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

兰台寺大夫──指专管弹劾的御史。兰台是汉朝宫内藏书之所，由御史大夫主管，故后世将御史台别称“兰台”，将御史府别称“兰台寺”，将御史别称“兰台寺大夫”。

Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. The institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai”, the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:41, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. Accordimgly, the institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai” the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

列侯──古代爵名。在秦称“彻侯”，为二十四级爵位中的最高一级。至汉代为避汉武帝刘彻之讳，改为“通侯”。“通”与“彻”同义，是改名不改义。“通侯”之意是表示受爵者功勋通于王室。
Marquis - Ancient Baron name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "chehou", which was the highest among twenty-four levels. In the Han Dynasty, in order to avoid the taboo of Liu Che, Emperor of the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "tonghou". "Tong" is synonymous with "Che" in Chinese, in this way changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the recipient has done meritorious services to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 09:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Marquis──Ancient noble name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "Che Hou", and it was the highest rank among the twenty-four ranks. In the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "Tonghou" to avoid the taboo of Han Wudi Liu Che. "Tong" and "Che" are synonymous, which means changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the meritorious deeds of the nobility are passed to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 15:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

后又改为“列侯”，表示序列之意。见《汉书·高帝纪下》颜师古注。清代并无此爵，只是借指侯爵。清代爵位分公、侯、伯、子、男，侯爵为第二等。

Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "The Book of Han·Gao Di Jixia". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquis. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Gong, Marquis, Bo, Zi, and Male, and Marquis was the second class.

Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "Book of Han• Han Gaozu ( the first emperor of Han dynasty)". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquess. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Duck,Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron and Marquess was the second class.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 16:03, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

膝下荒凉──意谓子女稀少，尤无儿子。膝下：这里指子女。因幼儿多倚偎于父母膝旁，故称。《孝经·圣治》：“故亲生之膝下，以养父母日严。”唐玄宗注：“亲犹爱也，膝下谓孩童之时也。”

Desolate at the knees means that there are few children, especially no sons. Under the Knee: it means children. The reason why children are called knee is that children often nestle to their parents' knees.''The Classic of Filial Piety·Shengzhi'' says "the feeling of affection grows up at parents’ knees. As children grow up, they become more and more respectful of their parents." Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty noted: "Be close to your parents and love them. Under the knees is the time of a child.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:48, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Desolate below the knee means that there are few children, especially no sons. Knee: it refers to children. The reason why children are called knee is that children mostly lean on their parents' knees. "The Book of Filial Piety·Shengzhi": "Therefore, the days of adoptive parents are strict under the knees of one's own birth." Tang Xuanzong's note: "You are still in love with you, and under your knees is the time of a child."--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 13:29, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

荒凉：形容因子女稀少而家庭显得清冷凄凉。西席──古人座次以右(西)为尊，故右席为宾客和塾师之位，坐西面东，故称幕宾和塾师为“西席”或“西宾”。
Desolate: It can be used to describe such a situation: a family becomes desolate because of the small number of children. West Seat ─ ─ the right seat was preferred by the ancients, therefore the right seat belonged to the guests and tutors. Besides, because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east, so the guests and tutors were called "west seats" or "west guests".

Desolation: it describes the desolation of the family due to the scarcity of children. West Seat -- the ancients took the right (West) seat as the priority, so the right seat was the seat for guests and school teachers.and because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east.Therefore, it was called "west seats" or "West guests" for the guests and tutors.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 02:19, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

清·梁章钜《称谓录》卷八：“汉明帝尊桓荣以师礼，上幸太常府，令荣坐东面(坐西面东)，设几。故师曰西席。”这里指家庭教师。“身后”一联──身后有馀：是说馀年还很长(“身后”不可解作死后)。
Liang Zhangju, Qing Dynasty, wrote in Volume VIII of 《Appellation records》: "Emperor Mingdi After respected Huan Rong and treated him with teacher courtesy. He once visited Taichang mansion in person, asked Huan Rong to sit in the East, set a table and a walking stick。Therefore, master said it was a seat in the West." Here refers to a tutor.A couplet of "behind you" - there is surplus behind you: it means that the remaining years are still very long ("behind you" cannot be interpreted as after death).--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 14:23, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

==Nadia 202011080004==

忘缩手：是说不肯收手，还要争名夺利。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==

无路：走投无路。此联是说世人大多只顾眼前，不顾将来，等到走投无路，后悔无及。
No way: desperate. This association means that most people in the world only care about the present, regardless of the future, and wait until they are desperate and regret it.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==

刹──梵语音译省称，意译为佛塔的柱形尖顶，故又称“佛柱”。

Sha-Sanskrit transliteration provincial name, free translation is the columnar spire of the stupa, so it is also called "Buddha column

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==

引申为佛寺。贾复──东汉南阳冠军(今河南邓州市西北)人，累官至左将军，并封胶东侯。
Extended to Buddhist temple. HiJia Fu——A native of Nanyang Champion of the Eastern Han Dynasty (now northwest of Dengzhou City, Henan Province),he was tired from general to the left and sealed Donghou in Jiao.
--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==

《后汉书》有传。姓贾的成千上万，贾雨村却只拉千年前的贾复为一家，足见其拉大旗作虎皮之势利小人肺肝。There is a biography in the Book of the Later Han Dynasty. There are thousands of people surnamed Jia, but Jia Yucun only manages Jia Fu from a thousand years ago. This shows that the Qiraji banner is a tiger skin.
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:18, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==

百足之虫，死而不僵——典出三国魏·曹冏《六代论》：
A hundred-footed worm does not die - an allusion to Cao Jon's "Six Dynasties" in the Three Kingdoms.
Note:百足之虫，至死不僵，读作 bǎi zú zhī chóng，zhì sǐ bù jiāng 。 It is used as a metaphor for a group or individual with strong power that will not easily collapse for a while. 百足：The name of a worm with a twenty-sectioned torso that can still wriggle after being severed.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==

“故语曰：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’扶之者众也。”
The old saying goes:'Hundred-legged worms die but are not stiff.' There are many who support them."

[[File:Example.jpg]]==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==

比喻世家大族虽然衰败，因家底雄厚，依傍众多，表面上仍能维持繁荣景象。
It is a metaphor that despite the decline of the aristocratic family, because of the strong family background and numerous support, it can still maintain its prosperity on the surface.

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==

百足：虫名，即马陆。长约一寸，躯干由多节构成，每节有足一对或二对，切断后仍能蠕动。
English: Centipede, Insect name, arthropods. Length, around an inch, Body is composed of multiple sections, each section has one or two pairs of feet, after cutting still can squirm.

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==

僵：倒下。安富尊荣──语出《孟子·尽心上》：

Stiff: fall down. Safety, wealth and honour──From the words "Mencius·All Your Heart":

==Öncü 202121080008==

“君子居是国也，其君用之，则安富尊荣。”

A gentleman can make people transform their morals, change their customs, Safeguard the country and protect its honor. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==

原意是君子因辅佐国君功勋卓著而享受荣华富贵。

Agree to be a gentleman，because of the outstanding merits of supporting the monarch and enjoying the glory and wealth.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The original meaning was that gentlemen who made outstanding contributions to assist the monarch enjoyed glory and wealth. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==

这里反用其意，意谓不劳而获，安享荣华富贵。

The meaning is the opposite here, that for nothing one can enjoy prosperity and wealth.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:02, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The meaning is reversed here, which means to enjoy prosperity and wealth for nothing. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:22, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==

钟鸣鼎食——语出唐·王勃《滕王阁序》：“闾阎扑地，钟鸣鼎食之家。”

Zhongming Ding Shi-Quoting Tang Wang Bo's "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan, the home of Zhong Ming Ding Shi." --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:24, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Zhongming Ding Shi-Speech by Tang Wang Bo "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan rushes to the ground, the home of Zhongming Ding Shi." -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==

古代贵族鸣钟列鼎而食。这里借以形容富贵豪华。

The nobles in ancient times sang bells and set out to eat. Here it is used to describe the wealth and luxury.--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw--------Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)
The ancient nobles rang the bells and set out to eat. To describe wealth and luxury. --[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 07:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

The ancient nobility enjoy their meal with tripod as cookware and the bell set as background music, which indicates occupying high positions and great wealth.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 14:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

20211229 homework

2021-12-28T16:27:50Z

Mao You: /* 毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-28T16:24:07Z

Mao You: /* 毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515 */

2021-12-28T15:38:44Z

Mao You:

20211222 homework

2021-12-19T13:33:20Z

Mao You: /* 毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-19T13:29:55Z

Mao You: /* 毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515 */

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-16T00:05:40Z

Mao You: /* References */

On Translation Strategies and Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose -- A Case Study of Chinese Translation of English Prose "Pleasures of Ignorance"

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略和翻译方法——以英语散文《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in the Chinese translation of English prose. Given the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is the literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on the Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to the Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there is a relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in a broad sense and a narrow sense. In the broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in the narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses feelings full of personality and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by a wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features a free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness are not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one mainline. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize the English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on the description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to the personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as the layout of the prose, but also his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasp the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because of ignorance that people are interested in nature and the world and pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in the usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

[[File:Source Text & Target Text.docx]]

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is a natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have an alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language words wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text.

Example 1(1):

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

Example 1(2):

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

Example 1(3):

But ''your and my'' ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，''你我的''无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

Example 1(4):

A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-328)

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with the lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique.

''Omission of the expletives It and There:''

Example 2(1):

''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

Example 2(2):

''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

''Omission of English articles:''

Example 2(3):

Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

''Omission of pronouns:''

Example 2(4):

... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-328)

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

Example 3(1): Hamlet 哈姆雷特

Example 3(2): Pickwick 匹克威克

The above two names are both transliterated from their original English sound.

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

Example 3(3): Montaigne 蒙田

This name is not translated from its original French sound as "蒙泰涅", but translated as "蒙田", the translated name that is recognized by Chinese translators for a long time and fixed on the syllable of foreign names.

Transliteration plays a crucial role in the translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes the transfer of the meaning or the "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

Example 4(1):

Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

Example 4(2):

It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

Example 4(3):

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplify the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.

Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhances the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting or condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

Example 5:

Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

(1) Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

(2) Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

(3) Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights a long time between life and death.

(4) Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition renders the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

Example 6:

...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

(1)　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

(2) Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of the use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

Example 7:

I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

(1)　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.

And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

(2)　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

(3)　Diction:

The two vivid adjectives "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object, as well as the change of the predicate, enable the translation to be more closely in accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance the literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

Example 8:

We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

(1) Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into an interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

(2)　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

(3)　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

(4)　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" renders the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding a sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors renders the translation more cohesive and coherent.

Example 9:

Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

(1) Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

(2) Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

(3) Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholarly prose.

(4) Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation to overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve the careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, the language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce the rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce a positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and more complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

corrected by--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 00:05, 16 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-16T00:03:34Z

Mao You: /* Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019 */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

'''Correction:''' The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

'''Correction:''' The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

'''Correction:''' The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

'''Correction:''' According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the aspects like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 08:56, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

'''Correction:''' The government's planning:--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 08:56, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations: (Cai Yi 2009:165)

'''Correction:''' Avoid subtracting words and distorting the original text. The omission is often used in the following situations: --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 08:56, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.（Zheng Zesheng 1981:45）

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.(Breus E.V.2002:58)

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

'''Correction:''' During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the major weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture, and customs. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 08:56, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
Anna Leelova Анна Лилова(1985). Ведение в общую теорию перевода [M] Introduction to general translation theory. Москва: Высшая школа Moscow: The Higher School.

Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

written by--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 00:03, 16 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T13:10:06Z

Mao You: /* Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T13:09:28Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

[[Correction:]] Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning to ensure the communicative function of the language.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T13:06:27Z

Mao You: /* Major Findings */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

'''Correction:'''First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there is a relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

'''Correction:'''Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular, and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, to reproduce the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

'''Correction:'''Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have an alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation, and transliteration.

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

'''Correction:'''At the lexical level, in the Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion, and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual, and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in the translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce the rhetorical and grammatical effect.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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[9] 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3): 82-88.

Xiong Bing. On the Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies [J]. Chinese Translation, 2014(3): 82-88.

[10] 张保红. 文学翻译 [M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2011: 28-88.

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Zhu Mingju. Chinese Translation of Famous English Works [M]. Nanjing: Yilin Press, 2007: 319-328.

==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T13:04:52Z

Mao You: /* Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

'''Correction:'''First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there is a relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

'''Correction:'''Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular, and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, to reproduce the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

'''Correction:'''Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have an alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation, and transliteration.

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T13:03:20Z

Mao You: /* Principles of English Prose Translation */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

'''Correction:'''First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there is a relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

'''Correction:'''Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular, and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, to reproduce the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T12:59:53Z

Mao You: /* Literature Review */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

'''Correction:'''First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there is a relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T12:57:20Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T12:57:00Z

Mao You: /* Research Background and Significance */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

'''Correction:''' However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 4

2021-12-13T12:55:52Z

Mao You: /* Research Background and Significance */

On Translation Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd's "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example

浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

[[Correction:]] However, few researchers are majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. Because of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of The Pleasures of Ignorance created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose.

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

written by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:39, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T12:52:12Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

[[Correction:]] In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyze and compare the translation styles of the two translations in light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.

[[Correction:]] Next, in the second part, we will analyze and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting several prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an, and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations. --[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

[[Correction:]] Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning to ensure the communicative function of the language.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Translation types, strategies, styles, methods

2021-12-13T12:49:48Z

Mao You: /* Chapter 2: The Use of Translation Strategy and Translation Methods in Tourism Texts under the Guidance of Peter Newmark's Translation Theory -- A Case Study of Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt) */

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T12:47:24Z

Mao You: /* Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Correction:In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyze and compare the translation styles of the two translations in light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.

Correction:Next, in the second part, we will analyze and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting several prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an, and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations. --[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

[[Correction:]] Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning to ensure the communicative function of the language.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:47, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T12:45:26Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Correction:In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyze and compare the translation styles of the two translations in light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.

Correction:Next, in the second part, we will analyze and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting several prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an, and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations. --[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Trans Type EN 6

2021-12-13T12:45:03Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

==Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''==
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding

翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Correction:In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyze and compare the translation styles of the two translations in light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations.

Correction:Next, in the second part, we will analyze and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting several prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an, and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations. --[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论 New Contemporary Translation Theory [M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁 The Melancholy of Paris [M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-13T12:34:36Z

Mao You: /* Division */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

Correction: The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

Correction: The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Correction: The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations: (Cai Yi 2009:165)

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.（Zheng Zesheng 1981:45）

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.(Breus E.V.2002:58)

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
Anna Leelova Анна Лилова(1985). Ведение в общую теорию перевода [M] Introduction to general translation theory. Москва: Высшая школа Moscow: The Higher School.

Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-13T12:29:06Z

Mao You: /* Combination */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

Correction: The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

Correction: The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Correction: The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations: (Cai Yi 2009:165)

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.（Zheng Zesheng 1981:45）

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
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Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-13T12:24:19Z

Mao You: /* Omission */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

Correction: The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

Correction: The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Correction: The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations: (Cai Yi 2009:165)

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

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RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-13T12:23:52Z

Mao You: /* Addition */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

Correction: The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

Correction: The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Correction: The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases: (Cai Yi 2009:158)

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations:

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
Anna Leelova Анна Лилова(1985). Ведение в общую теорию перевода [M] Introduction to general translation theory. Москва: Высшая школа Moscow: The Higher School.

Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Trans Type EN 5

2021-12-13T12:21:42Z

Mao You: /* Introduction */

=Chapter 5: Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019=
'''政论语体翻译策略与翻译技巧—以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
According to the Russian Constitution, every spring the Prime Minister of Russia is required to present to the State Duma an annual summary of the government's work, including a description of what Russia has accomplished in the past year in different areas , the challenges encountered, and the government's plans and goals set for the new year. The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and future plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia.This type of text belongs to the category of political essays. Therefore, it is important to master the translation strategies and methods of political essays.This paper takes the "Annual Work Summary of the Russian Government in 2019" as a study case, and the author uses the existing translation theories and methods as a guide to work on the translation, and summarizes some of his own experiences in the translation process, hoping that this paper can be helpful for the same type of translation research work.

Correction: The annual summary of the Russian government's work is one of the ways to know the development and plans of Russia and the important document for studying Russia. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

===Key Words===
Russia;Translation strategies and methods;Political essay;The Annual Summary of government's work

===摘要===
按照俄罗斯宪法规定，每年春天，俄罗斯国家总理需要向国家杜马作年度政府工作报告，报告内容为俄罗斯过去一年在各个领域政府工作的完成情况、遇到的挑战以及新一年政府的工作计划与目标。俄罗斯政府工作报告是了解俄罗斯发展动态和未来规划的途径之一，是研究俄罗斯的重要文献。这种类型的文本属于政论语体的范畴。因此，掌握政论语体文章的翻译策略和方法非常重要。本文以《2019年俄罗斯政府年度工作总结》为研究语料，作者以现有的翻译理论和方法为指导进行翻译工作，并总结了自己在翻译过程中的一些经验，希望本文能对同类型翻译研究工作有所帮助。

===关键词===
俄罗斯；翻译策略与翻译方法；政论文；政府工作总结

===Title===
Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019

===Introduction===
The form of annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the High Council the head of the government would make a summary, which contained information about the situation of the accomplishment of government work and the problems encountered in various areas during the past year, as well as the plans and goals of the government for the new year. Such government summary has continued to the present day in Russia.

Correction: The form of an annual summary of the Russian government's work started in the Soviet period. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The report on the work of the Russian government is not only the routine work of the prime minister, but also one of the ways for Russians and the whole world to understand the development and future of Russia. Thus, the annual government report can be described as an important document for the study of Russia.

The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, the political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. This mainly includes the following aspects: ①the features of this style; ②stylistics; ③translation strategies from Russian to foreign languages.

Correction: The government report belongs to the political essay style. In recent years, political essay in Russian has been studied in increasing numbers. --[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Nowadays, quite a few native and foreign researchers are working on the research of this topic. For example, in the thesis " The Pronunciation Features of the political style of speech" the author tells about the heterogeneity of literary language and one of the forms of its existence - the political style of speech and features of the organization of its phonetic varieties; And the article "Structural, semantic and functional features of references in the political style of Russian language" was devoted to the characteristics of speech in publicist articles; also the book "Political style: new features", and a textbook for students "Social-political style of speech" and so on. Meanwhile, the results of Chinese researchers should be noted. For example, Wang Yingying, a graduate student of Heilongjiang University, wrote a paper in which the author summarized the features and ways of translation of phrases and expressions used in political essays. In addition, the textbook "Course of Translation from Russian to Chinese" edited by Cai Yi. In it, many example sentences come from the political essays. (Veshchikova 1994:67)(Cai Yi 2009:23)

The following research methods are used in writing this paper:
1. Gather theoretical materials related to the selected topics;
2. Use relevant books on translation theories and underline specific sentences in the source text that use a particular translation theory;
3. Discover problems, solve problems, and generalize translation experiences.

The paradigm in this paper -- “The Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019”.

The object of the paper -- the features of the political essays, translation theories and methods used during the translation of the source text and the experience gained during the translation.

===Overview of Annual Summary of the Government's Work===
There are three types of government reports:State of the Union address, political speeches, and the report of the government on its performance. The first two began in the United States and the last in the Soviet Union. Since the formation of the Soviet Union, at each congress of the Soviet High Council, the head of the government would make a report that contained information about the situation of the government's work performance and the problems encountered in various areas over the past year, as well as the government's plans and goals for the new year. Such government reports continue to this day in Russia. Such a report on work of the government was learned in our country and has been used since 1954.

====Definition of Annual Work Summary by Government====
According to the Russian constitution, every spring, the Russian Prime Minister must submit to the State Duma a report on the work of the government in order to detail the performance of various work in the past year, the goals for further development in various areas, as well as the opportunities and challenges faced in the areas like economy, politics, diplomacy, population, education, and so on. The report on the work of the Russian government for the year, as a rule, consists of three parts:

① Overview of the main work of the government of the past year：
It is necessary to summarize the main work of the government for the previous year, achievements in various areas and the realization of major goals, and then to detail each specific achievement of the work.

② Work tasks for this year：
Draw up the government's work plan in detail for this year and the main goals. At first, explain the main ideas and main tasks of the government's work this year, then divide the work into several categories and explain in detail the measures the government needs to take.

③ The government's own planning:
Explain the construction plan for the government.

====The features of political essays（Take Chinese government reports for example）====
1．At discourse level

①Repeated references to the same things

a. 2010 GWR:积极 45;大力31;全面30;着力16;切实17;有效9;充分8 发展 146，建设87，加强67 促进42

b. 2009 vs 2010: 增强 19-18;加大23-56;加快44-56

②Unnecessary modifiers

a.更加周密地做好应对各种风险和挑战的准备。
Make even more thorough preparations to deal with risks and challenges of all kinds.

b.无比优越
incomparable superiority

c.就事关当今世界、事关双边关系的一些全局性和长期性重大问题深入交换意见.
(we)have been engaged in in-depth exchange of views with them on important overarching and long-term issues concerning the world situation and bilateral relations.

d.我们几代、十几代甚至几十代人想的一件事，要做的一件事，是我们100年、1000年也不会动摇的一个方针。
This is what we must focus on and achieve-not just this generation but for generations to come. This is the policy that will not change in 100 years or 1,000 years.

2.At sentence level

①Long sentences

经过三十多年的改革开放，我们从“以阶级斗争为纲”到以经济建设为中心，全面推进社会主义现代化事业;从搞计划经济到推进各方面改革，建立起社会主义市场经济体制;从封闭状态和片面强调自力更生，到实行对外开放、发展国际合作；从以意识形态划线到主张各种社会制度和发展模式和谐生存，全方位发展对外关系，中国的变化可谓天翻地覆。

More than 30 years of reform and opening up has brought about earth-shaking changes in the country: from "taking class struggle as the key principle" to focusing on economic development and building socialist modernization on all fronts, from planned economy to socialist market economy through reform across the board, from a closed society and over emphasis on self-reliance to opening up and international cooperation, from emphasis on ideology in external relations to advocating harmonious co-existence of various social systems and development models and developing external relations in an all-round way.

②Subjectless sentences

如果我们不能很好地处理同外部世界的关系，新世纪头20年由国际形势总体和平，大国关系相对平稳和新科技革命迅猛发展提供的发展机遇就可能丧失。

lf we fail to manage well our relations with the rest of the world, we might miss the development opportunities provided by the overall peace in the world relative stability in relations between major countries and fast progress in new science and technology revolution in the first 20 years of the new century.

③Parallel structure

a.总之，中国人穷日子过得太久了，最大的战略意图就是使自己的日子一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些，希望地球上的人们日子也一天比一天、一年比一年过得好些除此别无他图。

In a word, the Chinese people have suffered long enough from poverty. Our greatest and only strategic intention is to live a better life, where every day is better than the previous one. We wish the same for all the people in the world.

b.买的放心，吃的放心，用的放心。

Buy food and drugs with confidence and consume them with satisfaction

3.At word level

①Unnecessary words

a.经济增速陡然下滑

The pace of our economic growth suddenly slowed down

b.进一步落实好扶残助残的各项政策

Further implement policies for assisting and supporting them

c.注重共同利益、发展共同利益、维护共同利益

We value, develop and protect common interests

②Terms with national characteristics

a.小康社会

well -off/ well-to-do/affluent/comfortable

b.加快全面建设小康社会进程

Pick up the pace of building a moderatly prosperous society in all respects

c.要使中国人民能过上小康社会的生活

To enable the Chinese people to live a comfortable life A society of initial prosperity

d.以求同存

seeking common ground while shelving differences

e.坚持奉行互利共赢的开放战略

we follow the win-win strategy of opening up

③Figurative expressions

a.metaphorical expression

龙头企业—pacesetting enterprise

法宝—key

b.metonymical expression 转喻

米袋子—grain supply

各国唯有同舟共济而不是同舟共“挤”，同舟共渡而不是同舟共“斗”，才有出路。

Countries should consider themselves passengers in the same boat and cross the river peacefully together instead of fighting one another and trying to push one another off the boat.

====Source text introduction====

On July 22, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin made a speech in the State Duma reporting on the work of the government for 2019.Among the main topics of the speech of the head of the Cabinet of Ministers were the fight against coronavirus infection, support and development of healthcare, education, labor market and housing construction, support of business and backbone enterprises, ensuring macroeconomic and financial stability. Mishustin called the main goal of the government to improve the quality of life of every person in the country. The Prime Minister stressed that the updated Constitution of the Russian Federation increases the responsibility of all branches of power. According to the head of the government, the Russian economy could make a breakthrough, but this was prevented by the pandemic and oil prices.

===Strategies and methods used in the translation process===

The first requirement for translating works of political style is to faithfully and accurately express the political and ideological content of the original, so that the translation has the same influential function as the original. In this chapter, based on the aforementioned theories and strategies, the author analyzed several translation options using examples from the report.

====At Lexical level====
=====Addition=====
Except for some words with the same meaning, most of the words in the Russian and Chinese languages are not identical in terms of meaning, grammatical function, rhetorical features and usage habits. Due to this situation, when translating, in order to express the meaning of the original text exactly, it is often necessary to add some words and phrases, or even sentences, which are latent in the original text. This is a very common translation technique.
The addition of words must be based on the premise of faithfulness to the original text, and the addition of words is never the same as adding meaning. The addition of words is often used in the following cases:

①If you don't add the word, it doesn't fit the Chinese collocation convention, or the meaning is not clear, or even causes ambiguity; if you don't add the word, the meaning is not clear. For example，'''Пушкин переведен на многие языки мира'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''普希金已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”，the second is“'''普希金的作品已经译成了世界上许多种文字'''”. In terms of Chinese expression habits, although it can be said that he is reading Pushkin and he is translating Pushkin, at this time Pushkin refers to Pushkin's works. But it cannot be said that Pushkin was translated into a foreign language. Therefore, the first translation violates the expression habits of Chinese. The second translation adds words, but accurately expresses the original text.

②Without adding words, the translation is barely understandable, but adding words can make the translation clearer and more fluent. For example，'''Критерием мощи армии является её моральный дух'''. There are also two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''军队威力的尺度是士气'''”，the second is“'''衡量军队威力的尺度是士气'''”. Obviously, the second translation is better.

③Without adding words, it would violate logic from the perspective of the translation, and we don’t know what it means. For example，'''Книга «Остров Сахалин» относится к общественной деятельности Чехова'''. If we translate this sentence into "'''《库页岛》一书属于契柯夫的社会活动'''"，There will be logically unreasonable problems, which makes people feel inexplicable. Why does a book become a social activity? And if we translate this sentence into“'''《库页岛》一书的写作属于契柯夫的社会活动'''”，it will be clear at a glance.

To sum the above up, the addition of words is one of the common methods used in the process of Russian-Chinese translation. This method is also frequently used in the process of translating the Work Summary of the Russian Government for the year 2019.

1) '''Коронавирус сильно изменил рынок труда.'''

a) 冠状病毒极大地改变了劳动市场。

b) 受新冠疫情影响，我国就业市场发生了极大变化。

2) '''Россия, ещё раз повторю, сделала это едва ли не первой в мире, чтобы защитить наших людей и выиграть время на подготовку системы здравоохранения к приёму заболевших.'''

а) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的。

b) 我再一次重申，为了保护我们的人民，为了赢得更多时间来做好卫生体系接收病人的准备工作，俄罗斯几乎是世界上第一个采取这些举措的国家。

3) '''По мере расширения кризисных явлений также обратили особое внимание на розничную торговлю непродовольственными товарами, сферу культуры и на средства массовой информации.'''

а) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注。

b) 随着危机影响的加剧，非食品零售贸易，文化和大众传媒领域也得到了关注和支持。

4) '''Я неоднократно встречался с врачами, учёными и экспертами для выработки оптимальной стратегии, алгоритма введения ограничительных мер и последующей их поэтапной отмены.'''

a) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定最佳战略和规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时。

b) 我与医生、学者、专家们多次会面，力求制定出最佳战略，找到规范限制举措实行及其随后取消的时间。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is more in line with Chinese expression habits and easier to understand than the first translation. But it should be noted that adding words must match the original text, and adding does not mean adding meaning.

=====Omission=====
The omission is just the opposite of the addition mentioned above. In translation practice, it is sometimes necessary to omit individual words of the original text in the translation, otherwise the writing will appear verbose, which does not conform to the expression habits of the translation, and sometimes even affect the exact expression of the original intent. The omission is by no means to reduce the meaning, on the contrary, the omission is to better express the meaning. The subtracted word no longer exists in the translation, but its meaning is still there. Generally speaking, there are fewer cases in which words need to be subtracted in translation. Therefore, it is necessary to be more cautious when subtracting words. Avoid subtracting words and distort the original text. Omission is often used in the following situations:

① There are words that are not translated, the meaning is already expressed. Instead, translating them makes them seem cumbersome. For example，'''Тесным кольцом смыкайтесь вокруг ваших знамём!''' Many people might translate this phrase into“'''紧密地围成一个圈，团结在你们的旗帜周围！'''”. But such a translation reads very poorly. So “'''紧密地团结在你们旗帜周围'''” is better.

② Some words may be translated in a way that violates the conventions of the target language, or even distorts the original meaning. For example, '''Интересы увеличения произодства зерна потребовали изменения структуры посевных площадей'''. There are two translations of this phrase, the first one is “'''为了提高谷物的产量的利益，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''”，the second is“'''为了提高谷物产量，需要改变播种面积的结构。'''“Obviously, we would not speak Chinese like the first translation.

③ Translate two words into one. For example, Обе резорюции в общем и целом сходятся. In this sentence, we would translate “'''в общем и целом'''” into'''大体上''', not '''整个大体上'''.

The lexical omission is exactly the opposite of addition. This method involves ignoring some semantically redundant words in the translation process that do not carry an important semantic content, and their meaning is often comprehensively restored in the translation.

1) '''Для этого мы ввели мораторий на проведение практически всех проверок предпринимателей'''

a) 为此，我们采取暂停实施几乎所有对企业家的检查。

b) 为此，我们暂停了几乎所有对企业家的检查。

2) '''Всего различные формы поддержки на сумму около 600 млрд рублей получили семьи, в которых воспитываются более 26,5 миллиона детей.'''

a) 共计有抚养2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

b) 共计有2650多万儿童的家庭获得总额约6000亿卢布的各种形式的支持。

Through comparison, we will find that the second translation is simpler and clearer, without being cumbersome. It is definitely not the case that lexical omission is meant to subtract meaning, on the contrary, omission is meant to better express the meaning of the source text. In general, there are fewer cases where a lexical sense needs to be used when translating, so we need to be more careful about the word sense and not distort the meaning of the source text.

====At Syntactical level====
=====Combination=====
The method of combination is used when: there is a close semantic connection between the two statements, the retention of the main or subordinate sentence in a compound sentence is contrary to the rules of the target language (collapsing into a word or phrase) or one of the sentences is grammatically too incomplete to retain its separate reproduction in the translation.

1) '''Ситуация осложнилась и тем, что распространение вируса и действия отдельных стран по наращиванию добычи нефти привели к серьёзному дисбалансу на нефтяном рынке. Это вызвало обвальное снижение цен, усилилась волатильность финансовых и валютных рынков, произошёл отток капитала.'''

а) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化。这引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

b) 新冠病毒的传播和部分国家为增加石油开采量而导致石油市场严重失衡的行为使得情况复杂化，引发油价暴跌，加剧了金融和外汇市场动荡以及资本外流。

2) '''Все меры поддержки безработных Правительство распространило и на более чем 13 тысяч индивидуальных предпринимателей, которые были вынуждены закрыть своё дело после 1 марта. Всем им назначено максимальное пособие в размере МРОТ.'''

а) 政府把失业人员补助举措扩展到3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家身上。为他们所有人提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

b) 政府还扩大失业人员补助范围，向3月1日以后被迫停业的1.3万名个体企业家提供相当于最低工资标准的补贴。

3) '''Третье. За II квартал и вовсе списали все налоги и страховые взносы. Такую поддержку получили свыше 1,5 млн малых и средних компаний и индивидуальных предпринимателей.'''

а) 第三，免除第二季度的所有税收和社保费用。有150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家获得这一支持。

b) 第三，免除第二季度150余万家中小型公司及个体企业家的税收和社保费用支出。

Generally speaking, the method of combination is to translate two or more simple sentences together into a single sentence. This method makes the translation concise and easy to understand, and the translation will not be repetitive and verbose.

=====Division=====
Division is the opposite of combination, however, whereas combination is often used to avoid repetition, division is used to emphasis the logical and temporary connections between the parts of the text and to make them explicit.

1)'''Если отец или мать теряет работу, а в кризис такое, конечно, не редкость, это может обрушить семейный бюджет.'''

а) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，当然在危机中这种情况并不罕见，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。

b) 如果父亲或者母亲失业，那么家庭的收支预算就会崩溃。这样的情况在危机中并不罕见。

2) '''Вчера Государственная Дума поддержала в третьем чтении правительственный законопроект, который позволяет бизнесу комфортно переходить с одного налогового режима на другие.'''

а) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种的政府法案。

b) 昨天在杜马第三次会议上通过了一项政府法案。该法案能使企业轻松地从一种税制转变为另外一种。

There are many complex and long sentences in the government report, and translating them directly into Chinese can cause some semantic problems. Therefore, using the method of sentence division is very important.

=====Inversion=====
Inversion --- A change in the location (order) of linguistic elements in the translation, corresponding to the linguistic elements of the original. The words, word combinations, parts of a compound sentence, elementary sentences within a compound sentence, and independent sentences in the system of a whole text can be subject to permutations.

1) '''Тем отраслям, которые сильно зависят от потребительского спроса, помогаем через специальные адресные программы.'''

а) 那些高度依赖消费者的行业，我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助它们。

b) 我们通过专门的有针对性的计划来帮助那些高度依赖消费者的行业。

2) '''Во-первых, это разработка комплексного механизма поддержки крупных инвестиционных проектов на федеральном и региональном уровнях, в том числе – на основе соглашений о защите и поощрении капиталовложений.'''

а) 首先，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目，这是在保护和鼓励投资的基础上。

b) 首先，在保护和鼓励投资的基础上，建立综合机制以支持联邦和地区层面的大型投资项目。

3) '''Кроме того, мы сориентируем вузы на подготовку квалифицированных кадров в соответствии с потребностями экономики регионов.'''

а) 除此之外，我们联合大学培养合格人才，根据地区经济发展需求。

b) 除此之外，我们根据地区经济发展需求，联合大学培养合格人才。

There is a big difference in word order between Chinese and Russian. During translation, only by learning to use "inversion" can the translation be close to the original text and easy to understand.

===Conclusion===

During the translation of the government report, the author learned that the big weakness was a lack of understanding of the differences in expression and word order between Chinese and Russian, a lack of accumulation of some frequently used fixed phrases and collocations, and a lack of literacy about society, culture and customs.

Sometimes every word in the whole sentence is known but the translation in Chinese is not very fluent, even confusing. To solve this problem, it is necessary to clarify the context. There are a lot of long sentences in the government report. The context of the sentence is not very clear. Parallel phrases or predicates are often used to connect components. Therefore, in the translation process, we must first read through the whole text more than once, understand the relationship between the components of each sentence, and then use authentic Chinese expressions to translate it accurately. A government work report is a summary of all aspects of the government's work in the near future, so it has distinctive characteristics of the time. In order to translate the work report better, a thorough understanding of current events is necessary.

By writing this work, the author has accumulated a lot of vocabulary about politics, and at the same time, has a better understanding of the political style and has a deeper understanding of translation theory and methods. The knowledge of translation is becoming richer and the level of translation ability is gradually improving, and the author has also deeply realized that in order to be an excellent translator the following characteristics must be present: a large range of vocabulary, a good understanding of two languages, the ability to express well, insight into current affairs, and the flexibility in the translation process.

Due to the author's lack of translation experience and academic knowledge, there are still shortcomings in this work that await improvement and require further research.

===Reference===
Anna Leelova Анна Лилова(1985). Ведение в общую теорию перевода [M] Introduction to general translation theory. Москва: Высшая школа Moscow: The Higher School.

Breus E.V. Бреус Е. В. (2002)Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. [М].The basics of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. Москва: УРАО Moscow: URAO.

Cai Yi, Jin Weiran, Cao Shuxun, Sun Guifen 蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬.(2006) 俄译汉教程（上）[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese (1).北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Huang Zhonglian, Bai Wenchang 黄忠廉，白文昌.(2010) 俄汉双向全译实践教程[M].A practical course in Russian-Chinese complete translation in both languages.黑龙江：黑龙江大学出版社 Heilongjiang: Heilongjiang University Press.

Institute of Dictionary Studies of Russian Language and Literature Research Centre in Heilongjiang University 黑龙江大学俄罗斯语言文学研究中心辞书研究所.（2014）新时代俄汉详解大辞典[Z].The Russian-Chinese Dictionary in a New Era 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Kozhevnikova V.M. & Nikolaeva P. A.Кожевникова В.М., Николаева П. А.(1987) Литературный энциклопедический словарь[Z].The literary encyclopaedic dictionary. Москва: Советская энциклопедия Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia.

Mou Tingting 牟婷婷.（2013）“2010年俄罗斯政府工作报告”的汉译方法与策略[D]."" Translation methods and strategies of the 2010 Russian Government Work Report".黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

RF Government Правительство РФ.(2019-7-22) Ежегодный отчет Правительства в Государственной Думе [DB/OL].Annual report of the government to the State Duma. http://government.ru/news/40074/ .

Wang Yingying 王莹莹.(2014)"2012年梅德韦杰夫总理政府工作报告"的语言特点和汉译策略[D].Linguistic features and translation strategies of the " 2012 RF Government Work Report of Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University.

Zheng Zesheng, Geng Longming 郑泽生，耿龙明.(1985)俄译汉翻译教程[M].Translation Course from Russian to Chinese 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Translation types, strategies, styles, methods

2021-12-13T12:02:17Z

Mao You: /* 毛优Chapter 5： Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019 */

'''Translation types, strategies, styles, methods'''

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=阳佳颖 Analysis On Subtitling Strategies in the American Version of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan''=

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==Abstract==
''Legend of Zhen Huan'', as an excellent Chinese TV series, has successfully entered the American market. However, the American version of Legend of Zhen Huan still has some shortcomings in translation. By comparing and analyzing the subtitle texts of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan'' in China and the United States, this paper aims to discuss the problems existing in the overseas translation of the ''legend of Zhen Huan'' and the translation strategies and methods adopted in the subtitle translation of the American version, so as to provide some enlightenment for Chinese costume dramas to reach the world in the future.

==Key Words==
Translation strategy and translation methods; ''Legend of Zhen Huan''; Subtitle translation

==Introduction==
The TV series ''Legend of Zhen Huan'' is Imperial-harem competing play produced by the Beijing Television Arts Center in 2011. This play is adapted from a novel of the same name written by Liu Lianzi, which mainly tells the story of the young girl Zhen Huan growing up from an unsophisticated young girl to an empress dowager who is good at politics. Since its debut in China in 2012, ''the Legend of Zhen Huan'' has been a hit among Chinese audiences, with its ratings rising and even forming “Zhen Huan craze” for a time. The reason why the play has received so much praise, on the one hand, is that the film and television script is well-produced; on the other hand, it is because the plots and dialogues of the characters in the play cover a wealth of historical and cultural knowledge, embodying the profundity of Chinese culture.
Due to its great success in the domestic market, the series finally attracted the attention of foreign producers: the American team adapted the original ''Legend of Zhen Huan'', cutting the 76-episode original drama into six episodes,which was officially launched on Netflix’s paid website in the United States on March 15, 2015. It is the first Chinese TV series to be broadcast on mainstream TV stations in the United States.
However, the American version of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan'' failed to be sought after by audiences in the US, with most viewers abandoning the show after only one or two episodes.The English lines of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan''’s have ever been criticized by some Chinese audiences. After a deep study of the reason, in addition to the lack of content caused by a large amount of deletion and cutting, another important reason is the insufficiency of subtitle translation. This paper attempts to explore the translation strategies of the subtitle of ''Legend of Zhen Huan'', hoping to provide some inspiration for the subtitle translation of domestic film and television works of the same type.

==Literature Review==

===Previous studies in Subtitle Tranlation abroad===
In the early 1970s, Doller Up (1974) published a paper entitled “On Subtitle in TV Programs” on Babel, an authoritative journal of the International Association of Translators, which was the first time that scholars paid special attention to subtitle translation. In addition, he creatively pointed out the great value of TV subtitles to foreign language teaching, and then made contributions to the cause of education.

In 1976, Istvan Fodor published a book called Film Dubbing: Aspects of Phonology, Semiotic Aesthetics, and Psychology, which centered on film dubbing from an acoustic perspective. Fodor argues that because each country’s language and culture are unique and irreplaceable, it is almost impossible to achieve perfect “synchronization” in all aspects of the translation of film(Fodor 1976:82).

In 1982, Christopher Titford first proposed the concept of “restricted translation” in his article “Subtitling: Restricted Translation”. He believes that the limitations of film and television as a medium themselves are the main cause of problems encountered by translators in practice (Titford 1982:113).

In 1992, Ivarsson, a Swedish subtitling translation scholar, published his book Subtitling for Media: A Handout of Art, which can be said to be the first comprehensive study of subtitling translation works in Europe. In this book, Ivarsson introduces the development of subtitle translation technology in detail. The most representative subtitle translation scholars are Gambill and Gottlieb, who are two translation theorists. Yves Gambill, a Finnish translator, is a very important expert in the field of film and television translation. Gambill has a wide range of research fields, he has compiled a large number of academic monographs, such as language transfer and Audiovisual Communication: bibliography, which discusses the classification of translation patterns, translation strategies, translation audience and so on (Gambill 1997).

===Previous studies on Subtitle translation at home===
The research on subtitle translation in China mainly focuses on the English translation of Chinese films, and a large number of such papers and articles have been published, which are also the most representative research results of subtitle translation in China. In addition, with more and more domestic films moving toward the international stage, some attention has been paid to the study of Chinese subtitles.

The study on Chinese and English subtitle translation can be divided into several fields, including film and television language characteristics, subtitle translation methods, subtitle translation history and so on.

Subtitle translation methods can be broadly divided into two categories. One category refers to some practical translation methods and skills summed up by translators based on their years of translation experience, such as the seven kinds of experiences of film and television translation proposed by Qian Shaochang (2000), which stresses the importance of “translation” in the output of films and TV plays. The other is related to domestic MA papers. They usually start with some translation theories, such as German functional translation theory, Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory, relevance theory, and Susan Basnett’s cultural translation theory, and finally conclude translation methods such as domestication, foreignization, literal translation, free translation, omission and so on.

In recent years, with the increasing popularity of American TV series in China, the phenomenon of online subtitle translation has begun to attract attention from all sides. As time went by, subtitle translation goes beyond the simple purpose of satisfying the entertainment needs of movie fans, and begin to be applied to teaching practice and students’ self-learning process. This phenomenon is bound to attract academic attention. For example, Wang Hui (2005) discussed this issue in his article “The Impact of Subtitling on Vocabulary Acquisition”. This paper draws some conclusions which are beneficial to foreign language teaching.

However, there are still many deficiencies in the study on subtitle translation. The only literature we can refer to is few books on the translation of film and television subtitle. In other words, subtitle translation is not discussed in detail.

==Subtitle translation features==

===Subtitle translation needs to be brief and comprehensive===
Subtitle translation should not be lengthy for two reasons: First, because the screen keeps switching, each screen stay can not be very long, the scene with the character’s dialogue switches over more quickly, in a matter of seconds, which is fleeting. Second, whether it is the large screen in the cinema or the small screen in the home, due to space constraints, if the subtitle translation is not simple enough, it will lead to an increase in the number of words in the target language, not to mention the English words that take up more space than Chinese phrases. English words take up more space than Chinese phrases.

Take the Chinese phrase “Computer”for example, the English equivalent word is computer. The Chinese verb “来”corresponds to the English word “Come”. In general, English words have more characters than their Chinese counterparts, except in rare cases. Since the length of the word can not be artificially controlled, subtitle translation will put a higher demand on the number of words. In a typical presentation, Chinese and English subtitles are displayed simultaneously at the bottom of the screen, up to two lines of Chinese and two lines of English.

If there are too many words, the limited space can not accommodate in a few seconds, the audience will have a dazzling feeling as well. Therefore, one of the distinctive features of subtitle translation is its concise use of words.

===Subtitling translation requires natural equivalence===
The subtitling of the target language should be as natural as the subtitling of the source language. The subtitle translation discussed in this paper is mainly about the dialogue of the characters in the play. On the one hand, the style of dialogue is colloquial, in this sense,It is important for the translator to pay attention to whether the subtitle translation that the target language audience can hear and see is in line with their daily speaking style.If the original spoken language is translated formally and rigidly, the audience of the target language will feel less natural and fluent, and their movie-watching experience can not be comparable with that of the source language audience. On the other hand, the spoken language features of the characters can clearly shape the characters in the play. If the translator does not grasp the spoken features of the characters, the target audience can not understand the character’s connotation as well as the source audience.

Therefore,if a character needs to say something filthy, or even taboo, to make the character stand out, the subtitle translator must also translate the same filthy and taboo.These taboos should inevitably appear in the subtitle translation, and we should not mince words about them. The same is true of English to Chinese subtitle translation and Chinese to English translation. Because these taboo words are the extension of the role connotation, improper handling will affect the target audience's understanding of the connotation of the role.

===Subtitle translation needs to be easy to understand===
The film and Television Play is the Popular Entertainment Program, so subtitle translation should be clear at a glance. There are thousands of people watching TV dramas, and their knowledge and cultural level vary widely, and their appreciation level is naturally mixed.Film and TV series have such a wide audience, which requires subtitle translation to take care of the needs of the majority of the audience whether from the perspective of box office and Audience Rating, or from the perspective of cultural communication.

==Theory of Domestication and Foreignization==
In the process of translation, the translator should determine the general direction of translation, cultivate a good sense of culture, and fully understand that translation is an important feature of information exchange across different languages and cultures. But how to achieve that? There are two opposite strategies in translation: foreignization and domestication. The terms of domestication and foreignization were put forward by Laurence Venutti in his book Translators’ invisibility in 1995:

===Domestication===
The domestication strategy is to localize the source language, take the target language or target readers as the destination, and convey the content of the original text in the way that the target language readers are accustomed to.Domestication requires the translator to be closer to the target language reader, and the translator must speak like the native author.This translation strategy will often make the translation transparent, smooth, relaxed and natural, close to the reader to the greatest extent, so as to dilute the strangeness brought by the original text.In film and television subtitle translation, domestication is often used in order to make the audience understand the film smoothly.

===Foreignization===
The foreignization strategy is completely opposite to the domestication strategy, which is oriented by the source language culture and that "the translator should not disturb the author as much as possible to make the reader close to the author".Foreignization advocates believe that the main purpose of translation is cultural communication, so the translation should try its best to preserve the language and cultural information contained in the source language.Only in this way can the exchange and fusion of source and target cultures be achieved through translation. In addition, they believe that the translator should believe the reader’s imagination and intelligence to the utmost, and believe that when reading the translated version, the reader should not only understand the simple words, but also understand the foreign culture through the words, and they have the capacity to understand the culture.

Of course, as two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites and they complement each other. Absolute domestication and absolute foreignization do not exist.

==Case Study==

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===
The essence of “foreignization”is “the tendency toward the original author”, that is, the translator tries to be close to the original author in his translation (Xiong Bing, 2014). In the words of the Friedrich Schleiermacher, this means that the translator“Tries not to disturb the original author, but to take the reader to the original author”(Robinson, 2006:229) . Specifically in Translation, the translator tries to retain the original language, literariness, cultural characteristics and exotic customs (Xiong Bing, 2014) . Therefore, the nature of foreignization strategy is mainly in favor of the original author, and its defects are mainly reflected in the readability of the translation. In other words, the translation may be blunt and not well received and understood by the audience. Therefore, the translation effect is not ideal for the target audience.

====Literal Translation====
Literal translation means keeping both the content and the form of the original text in the translation when the language conditions permit, especially the metaphor, image, national and local color of the original text.The vast majority of subtitle translation of the Us version of ''Legend of Zhen Huan'' adopts literal translation. Look at the following example:

Example 1

Chinese version：嬛嬛一袅楚宫腰。

American version：the slim waist of the concubines of the Chu palace.

For the word “Huan”in the name of Zhen Huan, the American version uses the Foreignization method, which is translated literally as the slim waist of the concubines of the Chu palace.Western audiences may be confused by the subtitles,Western audiences may be confused by the subtitles, because Zhen Huan is clearly a woman from the Qing Dynasty, how come another Chu Palace? In terms of accuracy and the conveying of cultural context, this translation is well-done, but it creates a barrier for the audience to understand. Therefore, the translation can throw out on its real meaning, such as translated into As my name, Huan, means graceful women with slim waist, "Chu palace" here means can be omitted.

Example 2

Chinese version：一片冰心在玉壶

American version：A jade vessel is the symbol of a pure heart.

“Jade Vessel”in Chinese has a unique associative meaning, while the meaning of these words in English is vacant. Western audiences just think that Dr. Wen is evaluating his character, but they can’t hear his pure love for Zhen Huan, so on the basis of foreignization, it’s better to add some domestication translation to make it easier for the audience to understand.

The American versions of examples 1 and 2 are very literal and concise translations, because the original subtitles have no hidden meaning.However, due to the wrong choice of translation methods, a small number of translated subtitles are just like translation cavities.If the cultural significance of the original text is lost, the translation may be regarded as a failure.In a sense, actors’ performances and lines are the "booster" of the plot development of the TV series.However, if the audience can not understand the original meaning, the story will be much less attractive in the eyes of the audience.For example:

Example 3

Chinese version：“赏你一丈红”

American version：Then I will award Attendant Xia the Scarlet Red.

In the original subtitle of example 3, “一丈红” (yi zhang hong, literally “two-meter-long red”) is used to punish a palace maid or a concubine who had done something wrong in China’s ancient imperial palace. The specific content of the penalty goes as follows: a two-meter-long and two-inch-thick board was used by the performer to give the guilty palace maid or concubine a good beating on their waist or the place below it until their bones were broken and the blood gushed out. Looking from the distance, you will see that the blood covered a long distance. Thus, it is called “一丈红”.

In the American version of Legend of Zhen Huan, it is translated into “the Scarlet Red”. the word Scarlet itself means “Lewd and sinful,”as in the Scarlet letter. It is very appropriate to translate "red" with scarlet. However, this partial literal translation runs counter to the American audience’s way of thinking, which they think it as nothing more than a horror show. In this way, the specific penalty content will be lost, and the target audience can't feel that the harem struggle is everywhere in the court, and can't get the equal effect for them.

In this way, the specific content of the penalty will be lost, the target audience can not feel the Harem struggle existed everywhere in the imperial court and the equivalent effects cannot be obtained for them.

====Zero Translation====
The so-called "zero translation" means that some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language without the ready-made words in the target language (Xiong Bing, 2014). This translation method is mainly used to translate the names of people and officials in the English version of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan''. That’s because in ancient China, there was a very strict patriarchal system with the ideas of three cardinal guides and the five constant virtues.

In the eyes of the Chinese people, the distinction between the titles of concubines and concubines is clear at a glance, but it is difficult for foreigners to see these things, because medieval European monarchs were nominally allowed only one wife, there is no such complicated hierarchy of appellation among women. Therefore, such titles as "贵妃", "妃", "嫔", "贵人", "常在" and "答应" are presented in a dynamic equivalent way (words with similar functions in the source language), for example:

Example 4

熹贵妃——Noble Consort Xi 华妃——Consort Hua

莞嫔 ——Concubine Huan 沈贵人——Lady Shen

夏常在——Attendant Xia 小主——Young Mistress

敦亲王：Prince Dun 舒太妃：Consort Dowager Shu

Example 4 only shows a few official titles of the characters in the ''Legend of Zhen Huan''. However, the translation subtitles in this example reveal a subtitle rule that the American version of the ''Legend of Zhen Huan'' Uses Zero Translation for personal names and free translation for official titles. And we can clearly see the efforts of translators to represent this hierarchical culture in ancient China. However, this method of translation can not meet the needs of the current audience, because the ancient Chinese culture is broad and profound, and the official titles of emperors and concubines in the play conform to the traditional Chinese culture

However, the cultural ideologies of the American people and the Chinese people are very different. Traditional translation can not convey the characteristics of the characters and the intensification of their contradictions. The American people have not experienced the five thousand years of slavery and feudalism in China, nor do English dictionaries or translation related books have Chinese cultural vocabulary. In addition, the current subtitle translation does not advocate the use of a large number of notes, which will have a negative impact on the effect of watching the drama.

Therefore, notes are usually used only for the first appearance of a character, in order to provide the necessary introduction in enough subtitling space.When they appear a second time, the introduction will be omitted.As for the conflicts between the characters and the progress of the plot, it is difficult for the target audience unfamiliar with Chinese History to adapt to the culture and conflict in the play. Therefore, it is hard to arouse their interest in watching this drama.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===
Opposite to the foreignizing strategy, domestication is characterized by the “tendency toward the target recipients” (Xiong Bing, 2014). In other words, the translator tries to be as close to the target recipients in the translation as possible. In Schleiermacher’s words, it means that translators “try not to disturb the reader, but to bring the original author to the reader” (Robinson, 2006: 229). Specifically speaking, in the translation, the translator uses the language, literary devices, cultural elements that the target language readers love to replace the language, literary devices and cultural elements of the original language as much as possible, and abides by the language, literary devices and cultural norms of the original language (Xiong Bing, 2014).

The domesticating strategy is a translation strategy just opposite to the foreignizing strategy. Its advantage is that the translation can be fluent, easy to understand, and easily accepted by the target recipients; or it tries to meet the specific needs of the target audience. However, the domesticating strategy also has some shortcomings. The first weakness of it is the loss of the language, literariness, culture and other important elements of the source text, so that the target audience cannot appreciate the exotic authentic language and cultural practices. This cannot help the cultural exchange and dissemination between different ethnic groups. The second weakness is that the domesticating strategy of the translated text may lead to semantic loss and semantic ambiguity in translated texts.

====Omission====

Omission is a extremely important method in domestication strategy.The Syntactic structure of English emphasizes "hypotaxis", and there are appropriate connecting elements between each component of a sentence to express their mutual relations, which emphasizes the consistency and coordination of grammatical relations.While the structure of Chinese sentences is "parataxis", and the relationship between each component of the sentence depends more on the intention, and less on the linking component. So its structure form is relatively relaxed, and the words and sentences are relatively neat and unaffected.

Therefore, Omission is one of the most common methods in Chinese text translation.Omission means that when translation, the translator must grasp the differences between Chinese and English, omit the unnecessary linking elements in Chinese, so as to make the translation smooth and avoid stiff and cumbersome.There are many examples of Omission in the translation of Legend of Zhen Huan.

Example 5

Chinese version:“先敬罗衣后敬人。”

American version: “The clothing completes the person.”

This Chinese idiom means that people will first look at the clothes they are wearing and judge their social status according to the clothes. There is a derogatory meaning.However, in the translation of this sentence, the translator adopted Omission method instead of translating every word.The word "complete" expresses the idea that "clothes make the man", but fails to express the meaning intended in the original text.Therefore, We hold the view that the Omission method can be can be used here once again, and we can change its translation into “According to clothing to estimate people’s status.”

Example 6

Chinese version: “花开堪折直须折，莫待无花空折枝。”

American version: One must pick a flower at the prime of its bloom, Do not wait until the blossom fade and falls.

There are three Chinese characters for "折" in this sentence, but none of them are embodied by the translator in the process of translation. Would we say that he did not translate the Chinese meaning ? Of course not, the translator must have paid attention to the translation of the three “折”word, if they are translated one by one, it will appear that the sentence is too long-winded and does not accord with the subtitle translation.
Therefore, in order to persuade people to treasure, the translator skillfully omits the word “折”from the original translation, not only to avoid repetition, but also to convey the meaning of the original.

====Addition====

Addition is also an important translation method in domestication strategy.The word-adding method is to compensate for the lack of language and culture in the translation by adding the missing meaning in the source text, including structural and semantic additions.The structural supplement refers to the addition of omitted words or replaced words to make the content of translation more complete.Semantic supplement refers to the translator’s addition of nouns, verbs, summative terms, explanatory terms and conjunctions to compensate for the lack of language and culture in the translation so that readers can understand the original text.

Example 7

Chinese version:“他不忍叫你明珠暗投。”

American version:"You will not be granted an ordinary life when you can live an extraordinary one.

In this example, the translator adopted Addition method to make a explanatory translation for "明珠暗投" , which was translated as "be granted an ordinary life when you can live an extraordinary one."As we know, Chinese idioms are one of the wonders of Chinese culture, and they often show rich implicit meanings in condensed four-character sentences.In the translation of this sentence, it is easy for Chinese audience to understand the meaning of " 明珠暗投"", but how to make the American audience understand, it needs the translator to make an explanation, so that the American audience can understand the implicit meaning of the original text, and then reduce the cultural burden.

Example 8

Chinese version：“臣妾一与社稷无功，二与龙脉无助。”

American version:“Firstly, I have made no contribution to the nation. Secondly, I have begotten no heirs.

In example 8, the translator interprets "社稷" as "nation" for readers to understand."社稷" has always been a synonym for "nation" in Chinese, the same as "White House" is a synonym for "America". Moreover, there is no English equivalent for "社稷", so it is appropriate for the translator to use "nation". In addition, the translator also interprets the word “龙脉”as “Heirs”, which is actually a concept in Feng Shui, referring to the rolling mountains. Later, the royal family regarded it as the lifeblood of the country, so they would call the royal blood “龙脉”.Therefore, the word “龙脉”here refers to the Emperor’s children, the translation of “Heirs”is a good expression of the meaning of “龙脉”. Compared with the word “children”, which is often spoken by people, heir is used less frequently and more advanced.

====Free translation====

Free translation means that when limited by the socio-cultural differences of the target language, the translator has to give up the literal meaning of the source text in order to make the question consistent with the content of the source text and the similarity of the main language functions.
Culture is the essence of the development and evolution of different nationalities. under the imperceptible influence of different cultures, there are great differences in people’s way of thinking in different countries, and different symbols may be used to express the same image. Therefore, free translation plays a particularly important role in the foreign translation of cultural texts, and this kind of translation has also appeared many times in the subtitle translation of ''Legend of Zhen Huan''.

Example 9:

Chinese version:“天下有多少女子希望自己入选，好一家子鸡犬升天。”

American version: Every girl wished to be selected, so that her whole family could rise up through her success.

Example 10:

Chinese version:“皇上春秋虽盛，然国本不可不早立。”

American version:Even you are still young and healthy, a Crown Prince must be selected without delay.

　　In Example 9, it is necessary to pay attention to the translation of the word "鸡犬升天". In traditional Chinese, "一人得道鸡犬升天" is an famous idiom. Later, it is extended as an analogy that when a person becomes an official, those who have a relationship with him also gain power. It satirizes those who depend on power and get promoted and make a fortune. So instead of translating“鸡狗”into English, the translator replaced it with“Throughout her success,”expressing the idea that the whole family would turn over and lead a superior life after their daughter’s selection.

In example 3, the words “春秋虽盛”and “国本”are words with cultural significance. Among them, “春秋”is not in the real sense of “Spring”and “Autumn”, it represents a cycle of Spring planting and Autumn harvesting, referring to age or years.Therefore, the translator should not translate the term "春秋" literally into spring and autumn, High consideration should be given to the reality that the true meaning of this sentence is "although your Majesty is still strong".

In this sense,when translating this sentence, the translator omitted the term "春秋" and only translated the actual meaning of the sentence, which will be easier for foreign audiences to understand.It can be seen that the use of free translation method in the ''legend of Zhen Huan'' can fully convey the meaning of the original text and it is more in line with the domestication strategy in terms commonly used in British and American countries.

==Conclusion==

Generally speaking, the subtitle translation strategy of Legend of Zhen Huan is mainly based on domestication, and tends to transform implicit meaning into explicit meaning.When the meaning of the source language is complex and difficult to be understood by the target language audience, the translation strategy of domestication is usually adopted with the common expressions used in the target language.If there is an equivalent or similar expression between the target language and the source language, the cultural essence of the source language can be preserved by foreignization and concise explanation when the conditions permit, let the audience experience the charm and national characteristics of Chinese traditional culture.

As a translation strategy, absolute domestication and absolute foreignization do not exist in translation practice.The task of the translator is to make the best use of the two strategies in practice according to the specific language characteristics, the purpose, the language characteristics of the source language and the target language, and the national culture, so as to bridge the cultural differences between the two countries.

The Legend of Zhen Huan contains so many Chinese elements that it is understandable that it could not be translated into As Good as It Gets. By analyzing the characteristics of the translation of Chinese films and TV plays, and combining with the translation strategies of itself, the author aims to provide reference for improving the quality of the translation of Chinese films and TV plays, so as to better display the traditional Chinese culture to the world.

==Reference==
[１]Dollerup, Cay. On Subtitles in Television Programs[J]. Babel, 1974, (20): 197-202.

[２]Ivstor, Fordor. Film Dubbing: Phonetic Semiotic, Esthetic and Psychological Aspects[C]. John Benjamins, 1976.

[３]Schleiermacher, F. On the Different Methods of Translation[A]. In Robinson, D.(ed.). Western Translation Theory: From Herodotus to Nietzsche[C]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.

[４]Titford, Christopher.Subtitling: Constrained Translation[J]. Lebende Sprachen, 1982, 27(3):113-116.

[５]钱绍昌. 影视翻译──翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J]. 中国翻译, 2000(1):61-65.

[６]汪徽.字幕对伴随性词汇习得的影响[J].外语电化教学,2005(2):47-52.

[７]熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):82-88.

=2 刘晓 The Use of Translation Strategy and Translation Methods in Tourism Texts under the Guidance of Peter Newmark's Translation Theory -- A Case Study of ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''=
[[Trans_Type_EN_2]]

===Abstract===
With the rapid growth of economy, people's pursuit of life quality is gradually increasing. Travelling abroad has become a hot topic nowadays. The rapid development of overseas travel has increased the market demand for tourism translation, and more stringent requirements for tourism translators. How to deal with the translation problems caused by the cultural differences between Chinese and English during the translation process is of great importance to improve the quality of tourism translation. The communicative translation strategy in Newmark's translation theory focuses on the effect that the translation brings to the target language readers, which is of certain guiding significance to the E-C translation of tourism texts. Therefore, this paper takes ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'' as an example to analyze the specific translation strategies and methods in the application of Newmark's translation theory in tourism texts, so as to provide reference for other translators.

===Key Words===
Translation strategy and translation methods; Peter Newmark; Tourism texts

===Introduction===

This paper is based on the English-Chinese translation of ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''. By analyzing the application of Peter Newmark's communicative transaltion in the translation, the author proposes some translation methods, which can be provided for future references. This chapter mainly introduces the background information and significance of the report, and the domestic research status.

====Research background====

With the development of the world, various kinds of tourism appear in people’s life, and has unprecedentedly, extremely widely spread a variety of culture and lifestyle. Tourism has become a rising sunrise industry in modern society (Jin Huikang, 2007). To a foreign country to enjoy the beautiful scenery can make people know the colorful world and further know what they want. And this activity also has made tourism translation a reality and a thriving discipline.

However, due to the different geographical environments, cultural differences and historical backgrounds in different countries, many translators often ignore the disadvantages brought by differences in language and cultural habits in the process of translation, so that the original meaning of the original text will be lost in the process of transmission, which may cause confusion for tourists and cannot achieve the purpose of offering them accurate information and stimulating their interest.

Therefore, in order to make it more convenient for domestic citizens to travel abroad, translators should choose appropriate translation strategies and methods according to the cultural differences between China and foreign countries in the process of tourism English translation, so that tourists can form an objective and correct understanding of scenic spots. The semantic translation and communicative translation strategies in Peter Newmark’s Theories respectively focus on whether the meaning of the original text is exactly reproduced and the effect and influence that the translation brings to the target language readers, which are of certain guiding significance to the English- Chinese translation of tourism texts.

====Research significance====

In theory, based on Peter Newmark’s translation theories, this paper chooses the semantic translation strategy and puts forward appropriate translation methods for the English-Chinese translation of tourist text -- the ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'', which is of certain guiding significance for English - Chinese translation of tourist texts.
Based on the practice of the ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'' English - Chinese translation and the analysis of Newmark’s communicative translation strategy’s application, this paper sums up some translation methods, such as voice change, objective and personal subject changing, adding conjunctions, etc. And these methods can be provided for future references in the translation study and practice of others, which has a certain practical significance.

'''correction：'''

In terms of theory, based on Peter Newmark's translation theory, this paper selects a semantic translation strategy and proposes a corresponding translation method for the English-Chinese translation of the tourism text, Florida Everglades National Park (excerpt), which has certain guiding significance for the English-Chinese translation of the tourism text. Based on the practice of English-Chinese translation of Florida's Everglades National Park (excerpt) and the analysis of the application of Newmark's communicative translation strategies, this paper summarises some translation methods, such as phonetic conversion, objective and personal subject conversion, and the addition of conjunctions. And these methods can provide references for the future translation research and practice of others, and have certain practical significance.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 08:02, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

====Literature review====

Through the analysis of Newmark’s communicative translation in recent years, it can be found that there are many references for the guidance of communicative translation on tourism translation texts. He Xueyun (2005) proposes that the public notices and signs should belong to the vocative functional text and focus on the reader-centered communicative translation, which can give foreigners a better environment for travel, study and work in China. For such a style, the communicative translation theory should be chosen, the target readers put in the first place and always in mind, and their culture and receptivity taken into account. Jin Huikang (2006) believes that tour guide words must have a specific expected function, which are a kind of texts that integrate informative, expressive and vocative functions. Therefore, tourism translation should aim at effective attraction for overseas tourists, and the translator should grasp the group characteristics of overseas tourists and audiences when carrying out tourism propaganda or translating tourism materials. Ma Chen (2010) points out that the tourism text is a kind of article mainly based on vocative function, and the core of which is to accurately convey information for readers. Liu Anhong (2013) proposes tourism text as a kind of publicity material, aiming to stimulate tourists’ interest in visiting. According to the division of Newmark, the tourism text should belong to the text with the vocative function as its main function and the informative function as its secondary function. Therefore, the translation of tourism text should effectively achieve the effects similar to the original text.

From the combing of previous literatures, it can be found that there are many studies on the translation of tourism texts guided by Newmark’s communicative translation strategy. However, at present, there are few studies on the translation of tourism texts from English to Chinese, and more studies focus on the Chinese- English translation. For this reason, this paper is based on the translation practice of ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'' to provide some reference for future English – Chinese translation of tourism.

===Tourism Texts===

====General Introduction====

Tourism text is an important carrier for readers to obtain scenic spot information, and Tourism text is to stimulate readers' desire to travel by introducing tourist attractions and resources, and its ultimate purpose is to meet readers' expectations and arouse readers' enthusiasm by delivering tourism information. In other words, the dominant function of tourism text is vocative function. At the same time, tourism texts also provide readers with information they like, from which people can acquire relevant knowledge such as culture and customs, natural geography, etc. Therefore, informative function is also its important feature. It can be seen that the two most important functions of tourism texts are respectively informative and vocative one, whose premise is to provide information and purpose is to attract tourists.

In addition, we should realize that translation of tourism texts is a professional translation of tourist attractions and resources for target readers, and its essence is a communicative behavior. If the translator fails to properly deal with the differences between cultures, it will often fail to achieve the expected results. Therefore, during the translation process, more attention should be paid to the accuracy and effectiveness of the information, so as to make the translation conform to the target readers’ reading habits and aesthetic expectation (Li Daosheng, 2000). This requires the translator to put the reader's acceptance first in the process of translation. That is, tourism text translation should not only realize the conversion from one language to another, but also take language barriers and cultural differences into account. Therefore, in order to achieve the goal of successful communication, translators should flexibly apply various translation strategies and adopt appropriate translation methods according to the text types of tourism texts.

====Introduction to the ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''====

Established in 1974, Everglades National Park covers 2,354 square miles, or 6,097 square kilometers (1.4 million acres). Located at the tip of southern Florida, it is the largest subtropical wildlife sanctuary in the continental United States. Everglades National Park protects an unparalleled landscape which provides important habitat for numerous rare and endangered species such as the manatee, American crocodile, and the elusive Florida panther.

''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'' is excerpted from a notice from U.S. National Park Service about the phased reopening of the park, including alerts of the reopening, activities, safety and accessibility. It can also be regarded as a travel guide, which describes the journey towards people and offers help to the tourists who want to go there, and which often includes the description of the best travel time, transportation, accommodation, scenic spots and matters needing attention. As a practical text, its main purpose is to introduce and promote tourist scenic spots, that is the Everglades National Park in Florida. Its vocative and informative function are very prominent, and it has the characteristics of reader-orientation, the effectiveness of information transmission and timeliness.

===Newmark's Translation Theory===

====General introduction of Peter Newmark's translation theories====

Peter Newmark, a well-known translation theorist, is one of the main figures in the founding of translation studies in the English-speaking world in 20th century. Newmark devoted himself to studying the past and present of Western translation, and put forward his own views on this basis. Newmark’s translation theories mainly include three parts, that is, the classification of text types, translation approaches, and the lately correlative theory of translation.

According to Karl Buhler’s knowledge of language features and Jacobson’s classification of them, Newmark proposed six functions of language informative function, expressive function, vocative function, phatic function, aesthetic function, and lastly metalingual function. (Hou Yingying, 2020) Then Newmark divided text types into three: expressive-functional texts, informative-functional texts, vocative-functional texts.

After putting forward these three text types, Peter Newmark suggested eight translation approaches or strategies. Firstly, from the perspective of focusing on the source language, he suggested word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation and semantic translation; Secondly, from the perspective of focusing on the target language, he suggested adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation (Newmark, 2001:45).

In 2007, Newmark came up with a new theory, that is, correlative theory of translation, which means that “The more serious and important the language of the original or source text, the more closely it should be translated.” (Newmark, 2007)

In conclusion, Peter Newmark has proposed many significant theories and made extensive discussion on those concepts, which will have a great influence on the translation practice.

====Semantic translation and communicative translation====

Peter Newmark divided text genres into “expressive text”, “informative text” and “vocative text” in his classic work ''Approaches to Translation''. Imaginative literary works, such as poems, songs, novels and dramas, authoritative statements, autobiographies, essays and personal correspondence, etc. are expressive texts. All the formatted texts with science and technology, industry and commerce, and economy as themes belong to informative texts. And vocative text refers to all texts that can infect readers and make them “get information”.

With reference to these three kinds of texts, Newmark further creatively proposed the concepts of semantic translation and communicative translation: “communicative translation” means that the effect of the target text on the reader of the target language is as much as the effect of the original text on the reader of the source language; “semantic translation” refers to the reproduction of the context of the source text as accurately as possible under the premise of the semantic and syntactic structure of the target language. He believed that only communicative translation and semantic translation can achieve the two major goals of translation: being accurate, and being economic (effective).

In ''About Translation'', Newmark made a detailed comparison of the characteristics of semantic translation and communicative translation from different aspects, and pointed out that the fundamental difference between them lies in that when the information and the effect are in conflict, communicative translation lays more emphasis on effect than content, while semantic translation lays more emphasis on content than effect. Communicative translation can give the translator full freedom, the translator can reorganize the syntax, eliminate the original obscure places in the source language, and make the language conform to the standard of the target language. However, semantic translation emphasizes the content of the information itself, tries to make the form of the target text similar to the form of the original text, and retains the language characteristics and expressive style of the original author. Therefore, compared with semantic translation, communicative translation is more subjective and can better reflect the translator’s creativity and it attaches great importance to the communicative effect of translation, the key to which is to convey information, make readers of the target language think, act and feel, and play an inductive role in making the translation natural and smooth, and more readable.

Newmark pointed out that the translation of expressive texts should employ semantic translation, while informative and vocative texts communicative translation which is reader-centered. The most direct purpose of tourism texts translation is to convey information to readers on the premise of attracting readers’ attention and leaving readers with deep memories, so that readers can take actions -- to visit tourist attractions and pay attention to matters that should be paid attention to. Thus, it can be seen that the tourism text belongs to the vocative text and the communicative translation should be applied.

To sum up, Newmark’s communicative translation focus on the effect that the translation brings to the target language readers, which is of certain guiding significance to the English- Chinese translation of tourism texts.

===Case Study===

The purpose of communicative translation is to try to make the translation have the same effect on the target reader as the original does on the source reader. That is to say, the key point of communicative translation is to be loyal to the target language and the target text reader, that is, the source language is required to obey the target language and culture, leaving no doubt or obscurity to the reader, and eliminating difficulties and obstacles in reading or communication for the reader as far as possible.

Because the translator wants to achieve a certain communicative purpose, emphasizes the effect and has a specific target audience, the translation has inevitably broken the restrictions of the original text, pursuing smoothness, clarity, directness and conformity with conventions. In this part, the author analyzes the specific application of communicative translation in the translation practice of the ''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)'' from three aspects: lexical, syntactic and textual analysis.

====At Lexical Level====

Generally speaking, there is partial equivalence between English and Chinese, that is, similar expressions in Chinese can replace the meaning of English words or phrases (Liu Junping, 2009). In the following, two translation methods used in lexical translation will be introduced: conversion of part of speech and the translation of public signs.

=====Conversion of part of speech=====

Example 1:

ST: ''There is no shortage of activities for individuals, groups, or families to enjoy outdoors.''

TT: 个人、团体或家庭都能在这找到适合的户外活动。

Analysis: As we all know, English belongs to the Indo-European language family, while Chinese the Sino-Tibetan language family. Many differences exist between English and Chinese in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. Therefore, in the process of translating English into Chinese, due to the different ways of expression between English and Chinese some sentences can be translated word by word, while most sentences cannot. In order to make the Chinese translation smooth and natural, some words in the original text need to be converted into different parts of speech in the target text without sticking to the surface structure of the original text. In other words, some words in the original text can be converted into other parts of speech in Chinese on the premise of being faithful to the original meaning and retaining the original effect.

The original sentence uses a nominal phrase “no shortage of” to express the meaning that no matter how many people come together for outdoor activities, there are always options. The translator translates it into a verbal phrase, that is, everyone can find a suitable outdoor activity here, so that the meaning gets across and the whole sentence flows naturally.

Example 2:

ST: ''Accessibility: No immediate trails.''

TT: 如何前往：没有路径可直接到达。

Analysis: As English tends to use more nouns with static narratives, while Chinese tends to use more verbs with dynamic ones. The static tendency of English mainly comes from nominalization, a common phenomenon in English. Nominalization mainly refers to the use of nouns (phrases) to express the information originally expressed by verbs (phrases), such as the use of abstract nouns to express actions, behaviors, changes, states, etc (Lian Shuneng, 1993). For example, “accessibility” in Example 2 is an abstract noun, which is used to show the way to one place. Chinese, on the other hand, tends to use verbs. So, in order to better convey the effect and let the reader read without any doubt or discomfort, the translator converted the noun into a verb phrase, that is “如何前往”. Likewise, in the noun phrase “no immediate trails”, the author wants to say that there is no direct way (to arrive at the destination). When translating, if it is directly translated into a noun phrase “没有直达路”, the reader may feel difficult to read. So, if it is translated into “there is no direct path can reach that place”, the sentence will be more smoothly and convey the original information and the effect is also retained.

=====Public signs=====

Example 3 & 4:

ST: ''Things To Do''

TT: 活动介绍

ST: ''What you can do''

TT: 解决措施

Analysis: As mentioned in the theoretical framework above, tourism text belongs to vocative text. As a kind of tourism text, public signs are a special style for specific people to achieve a certain communicative purpose. Its application scope is very wide, almost involved in every aspect of our daily life, such as street signs, billboards, road signs, shop signs, warnings, propaganda, travel briefs and so on. As a communicative tool, it conveys necessary and useful information to the public by means of a few words, simple and easy to understand icons or the combination of both (He Xueyun, 2006). Therefore, it can be seen that public signs feature lots of nouns, verbs, phrases and abbreviations and more often, fixed expression, which means in translation, only concise and idiomatic expression can fully convey the effect of the original text.

Just as the example 3, once the original text is translated literally, that is “要做的事情”, it sounds rather awkward, which not only does not convey the meaning of the source text that was intended as an introduction to the activities that can be done, but also may lead the reader to believe that this section is about what is required. However, if it is translated into “活动介绍”, readers can clearly know the main content of this part and can find out the activities they are interested in. This expression is very concise and also in line with the Chinese language habits. The same is true of example 4.

Example 5 & 6:

ST: ''Alligators and crocodiles - Crocodilians are one of the reasons people visit the park, however, these are wild animals that can be dangerous to humans.''

TT: 小心短吻鳄和鳄鱼——鳄鱼是人们参观公园的原因之一，然而，这些野生动物对人类会很危险。

ST: ''Poisonous plants - The park’s ecosystems support a variety of plant life including some that cause reactions to human skin.''

TT: 警惕有毒植物——公园的生态系统支持多种植物的生长，包括一些会对是人类皮肤过敏的植物。

Analysis: Tourist texts belong to the vocative text, emphasizing the transfer of the effect of the information and the empathy of the reader. This requires the translator to pay attention to the internal logic of the text, modify the translated text to make it clear in the process of tourism translation without sticking to the original form and give full consideration to the core position of readers.
Examples 5 and 6 are in the same sentence structure -- firstly species are given, and then that the species could be in some danger is pointed out. If it is translated in accordance with the original text word by word, then the front part is just posing out that species. However, if such warning words as “小心” or “警惕” are added, it can let the reader know before he continues reading that this species may be dangerous when visiting, and then with reading below, the reader will know why it is dangerous. This will prepare the reader mentally, and the reading will be smoother.

====At Syntactical Level====

Two aspects are included in syntactic analysis, which are change of subjects and passive voice, and the punctuation.

=====Change of subjects and passive voice=====

Example 7:

ST: ''Wading birds, cormorants, Purple Gallinules, and nesting Anhingas may be found along the path anytime of the day during the winter (dry) season.''

TT: 在冬季（旱季），任何时候您都可以在沿路发现涉水鸟类、鸬鹚、紫雀和筑巢的美洲蛇鸟。

Analysis: English tends to use more impersonal subjects, which means it rarely uses the personal subject to describe but expresses how objective things act on people’s perception to things appear in an objective tone. So, the structure is often like this: inanimate subject + animate subject (Lian Shuneng, 2010). Chinese pays more attention to subjective thinking, and often describes objective things from the point of view of oneself, or tends to describe people and their behavior or state, so the personal subject is often used. When the personal subject is clear, Chinese often implies or omits it.
Passive voice is a common grammatical phenomenon in English. In some styles, the use of passive sentences has almost become a habit of expression. Passive sentences give rise to the tendency of using impersonal subjects, and vice versa. Chinese uses fewer passive forms. The main reason for this difference is that the use of passive forms in Chinese is limited, and the mark of the passive voice, such as “让”, “给”, “受”, mostly expresses displeasure.

Therefore, in example 7, the translator transformed the passive voice into the active voice and the impersonal subjects “Wading birds, cormorants, Purple Gallinules, and nesting Anhingas” into the personal subjects “您”. What’s more, as this tourism text is written for readers, the use of the second person subject can shorten the distance.

Example 8 & 9:

ST: ''Wading birds, American Coots, Osprey, White-crowned Pigeons, warblers, Red-shouldered Hawks, Anhingas, rails, Painted Buntings and other transients are best viewed here in the morning.''

TT: 早晨在这里观赏涉禽、美洲骨顶鸡、鱼鹰、白头鸽、莺、赤肩鹫、美洲蛇鸟、秧鸡、彩绘鹀和其他过路的鸟类的效果最好。

ST: ''In the summer, fewer programs are offered.''

TT: 夏季提供的项目较少。

Analysis: Just as what has been said above, English has a tendency to use impersonal subjects and passive voice, while Chinese is exactly the opposite. And when the subject is clear, Chinese often implies or omits it, which is just like example 8 the personal subject “you” is omitted.
In example 9, the omitted subject is the national park, and the temporal adverbial phrase “in the summer” becomes the subject in form, which is a common expression in Chinese. That is because subjects in Chinese are not only in various forms, but also dispensable: it can denote giving, receiving, time, place.

=====Punctuation=====

Example 10:

ST: ''Connecting trails through the Pinelands run 7 miles (11 km) west from the Long Pine Key campground to Pine Glades Lake along the main park road.''

TT: 这些小道从长松岛营地向西延伸7英里（11公里），穿过一片松林地，连通公园主路边松林湖。

Analysis: English sentences are complicated, and subordination is one of the most important characteristics of modern English, which features right-branching, sentences long and complex, made in “architecture style”. Conversely, Chinese sentences are relatively short, and commonly use scattered sentences, loose sentences, tight sentences or composite sentences with parallel structure. Chinese features left-branching, and sentences are made in “chronicle style”, using clauses to streamline the thoughts.

So, when there are many prepositional phrases in the original English sentence, the translator can divide the long sentence into several short sentences and recognize those by adding comma, which can help readers to sort out the logic of the original text and get the main information. By using communicative translation, the translator divided the original sentence into three sentences. The logical sequence is that “The trails run seven miles (11 kilometers) west from the Long Pine Key campground. Passing through the Pinelands, they lead to Pine Glades Lake along the main park road.”, which shows the location of both the Long Pine Key campground, the Pinelands and Pine Glades Lake correctly, leaving no doubt to readers of the target language.

Example 11:

ST: ''In keeping with Monroe County’s closure order for beaches, North Nest Key and all waters within 100 yards from the shore will be closed for protection of park resources during the holiday weekend. The closure will begin on Friday, July 3 at 6 a.m.''

TT: 根据门罗县对海滩的关闭安排，为保护公园资源，北巢岛和离海岸100码以内的所有水域将自7月3日星期五早上6点起暂停对外开放。

Analysis: In the original text there are two sentences, which can be combined to make the meaning complete and language pithy in the target language. And it can be taken into consideration to reconstruct them by replacing full stop with comma. By considering communicative translation, the translator put two prepositional phrases in advance as adverbials, which are “in keeping with Monroe County’s closure order for beaches” and “for protection of park resources during the holiday weekend”, and then turned the second sentence into a temporal adverbial phrase and put it in the main clause as an adverbial. So, the whole structure is “In keeping with Monroe County’s closure order for beaches and for protection of park resources during the holiday weekend, North Nest Key and all waters within 100 yards from the shore will be closed from Friday, July 3 at 6 a.m.” By doing so, the information is concisely conveyed, and Chinese readers can well understand it.

====At Textual Level====

Discourse refers to the actual language unit used and is the whole language constituted by a series of consecutive paragraphs or sentences in the communication process. In general, a text consists of words, phrases, sentences and sentence cluster (Lan Lingyan, 2020), among which the components were cohesion in form and coherence in semantics.

Example 12:

ST: ''There is no shortage of activities for individuals, groups, or families to enjoy outdoors. The diverse habitats allow for enjoyable activities ranging from hiking, canoeing, kayaking, biking, fresh and saltwater fishing, and camping in the ultimate wilderness.''

TT: 个人、团体或家庭都能在这找到适合的户外活动。无论是步行、乘坐独木舟、划皮划艇、骑自行车，还是在淡水或海水钓鱼、在终极荒野地露营，您都可以饱览多样的自然环境、尽享快乐。

Analysis: Coherence in a piece of writing refers to the principle that all paragraphs, sentences or ideas are combined so well that they form a united whole. Coherent translation has smooth structural, grammatical, and logical movement from one sentence or idea to the next and the reader does not have to pause and guess at the meaning caused by gaps in development between ideas, sentences and paragraphs.

In example 12, the last topic of the fist sentence in the original sentence is outdoor activities, while the subject of the second sentence is the diverse habitats. This is a shift in the topic, which may make the readers pause and guess at the logical relation between them. Therefore, in translation, guided by communicative translation, the translator needs to mind the text coherence and to make proper adjustments. Out of this, the translator put the activities in the second sentences as the subject of the second sentence in the target text, so that the first sentence can pass through smoothly to the next one, so does the understanding of readers.

Example 13:

ST: ''Everglades National Park is a popular spot for saltwater and freshwater sport fishing. Boats can be chartered at Flamingo. Be sure to check a visitor center for park fishing regulations and closed areas.''

TT: 大沼泽地国家公园是一个很受欢迎的钓海水鱼和淡水鱼的地方。在弗拉明戈可以租船。在钓鱼之前，一定要阅读游客中心的公园捕鱼规定和封闭区域。

Analysis: Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link one part of a text to another. This includes the use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical reference, etc. For example, ‘it’, ‘neither’ and ‘this’ all refer to an idea previously mentioned.

In example 13, this paragraph mainly talks about fishing in the Everglades National Park, with a topic sentence and two explanatory sentences: one introducing the place for chartering and the other cautions. There are no grammatical or lexical links within these three sentences, and the logic is connected by semantics. Considering well understanding of readers in the target language, the translator added one lexical link “before fishing” between the last two sentences, to make the reader understand that he or she should read the rules and precautions of fishing before going fishing. Also, with repeating the key word “fishing”, the central idea of this whole paragraph is prominent, and the sentences are logically and smoothly linked to express the intended meaning, thus making this paragraph a cohesive group.

===Conclusion===

====Major findings====
For the text, the tourism text belongs to the vocative text, which focuses on conveying the information and effect, so the communicative translation theory should be adopted to this kind of translation. As for this original text, the first part that introduces the outdoor activities belongs to the tourism advertisements, which are descriptive with vivid words. Tourism advertising is infective, with short and concise words, full of creativity, lively and concise sentence structure, and strong attraction. While the announcement that informs of the operating status of the park is a quite different style. The wording is formal, standard, accurate and stylized. Secondly, the source text involves a wide range of knowledge and large vocabulary. For example, “hardwood hammock” for “硬木吊床” and “Geocaching” for “寻宝”.

Based on the analysis of examples from lexical, syntactic and textual levels, some translation methods can be proposed. On one hand, when translating, some words in the target text can be converted into different parts of speech in the original text to make the language natural and idiomatic. On the other hand, when doing English – Chinese translation, in most cases, passive voice should be changed into active voice, personal subject is favored in Chinese, and subjects can also be omitted sometimes. Lastly, as English and Chinese have lots of differences in sentences, the translator should change the order of the sentences sometimes to make them smooth and fluent, and some words can be added to make the meaning coherent.

====Limitations====

Besides some major findings, there are also many limitations in this translation practice. Firstly, communicative translation focuses on the effect conveyed by the translation rather than the information, which can easily make the translator ignore some original. So, in the translation, other available translation theories should also be taken into account to achieve best translation.

Then, when translating a text, whether it is a tourism text or a literary works, they cannot be translated immediately. Relevant information and background should be collected in advance, and otherwise some mistakes which should be avoided will be made. For example, “Snail Kite (蜗鸢)” might be translated as “蜗牛风筝” if the translator does not look it up in advance.

===References===

[1] Newmark, Peter. About Translation[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.

[2] Newmark. Approaches to translation[M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[3] Newmark, Peter. A New Theory of Translation[J]. Sborník Prací Filozofické Fakulty Brněnské Univerzity, 2007(13)

[4] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:39-42.

[5] 贺学耘.汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略[J].外语与外语教学, 2006(03):57-59.

[6] 侯莹莹.凯瑟琳娜·莱斯与彼得·纽马克文本类型翻译理论之比较研究[J].海外英语, 2020(22):49-50+60.

[7] 金惠康.跨文化旅游翻译探讨[J].上海翻译, 2007(01):31-34.

[8] 兰灵艳.交际翻译理论指导下《家庭生活》（节选）汉译实践报告[D].南昌大学, 2020.

[9] 李道胜. 汉英语义对比分析[J]. 语言教育, 2000(4):4-5.

[10] 连淑能.《英汉对比研究》[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社, 1993.

[11] 刘安洪.跨文化交际视角下的旅游文本翻译策略研究[J].中华文化论坛, 2013(10):160-163.

[12] 刘军平，西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社, 2009.

[13] 马忱.交际翻译策略对汉英旅游翻译的启示[J].郑州航空工业管理学院学报(社会科学版), 2010,29(06):119-121.

'''correction：'''

[1] Newmark, Peter. About Translation[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.

[2] Newmark. Approaches to translation[M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[3] Newmark, Peter. A New Theory of Translation[J]. Sborník Prací Filozofické Fakulty Brněnské Univerzity, 2007(13)

[4] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:39-42.

[5] He Xue Cao. The current situation of Chinese-English public language translation and its communicative translation strategy[J]. Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching, 2006(03):57-59.

[6] Hou Yingying. A comparative study of Katherina Rice and Peter Newmark's translation theory of text types[J]. English Abroad, 2020(22):49-50+60.

[7] Jin Huikang. Exploring cross-cultural tourism translation [J]. Shanghai Translation, 2007(01):31-34.

[8] Lan Lingyan. A practical report on Chinese translation of Family Life (excerpt) under the guidance of communicative translation theory[D]. Nanchang University, 2020.

[9] Li Daosheng. A comparative analysis of Chinese-English semantics [J]. Language Education, 2000(4):4-5.

[10] Lian Shouneng. A Comparative Study of English and Chinese [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 1993.

[11] Liu Anhong. Research on translation strategies of tourism texts in the perspective of cross-cultural communication [J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2013(10):160-163.

[12] Liu Junping, General History of Western Translation Theory [M]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2009.

[13] Ma Chen. Implications of communicative translation strategies for Chinese-English tourism translation [J]. Journal of Zhengzhou Institute of Aviation Industry Management (Social Science Edition),2010,29(06):119-121.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:34, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

=3 刘越 Translation methods and strategies for novel subject matter under the guidance of communicative translation theory -- A case study of Korean novel Eun-ju's Movie (Excerpt)=
[[Trans_Type_EN_3]]

==Abstract==

There are many translation practices under the guidance of communicative translation theory, but there are not many translation practices in Korean novels. Through this translation practice, we hope to summarize the translation methods and strategies adopted in the translation of novel subject matter under the guidance of communicative translation theory in terms of vocabulary, sentence and rhetoric. In this paper, under the guidance of communicative translation theory of Korean novels "innocent people" and "the goat family" to analyze translation strategies and translation methods, let us hope that through the work of human changes in temperature to realize that the most warm affection and the most simple human feelings, seems to be the fact that more and more far from us, let us together to explore the history of the "family" gradually forgotten by us and meaning, Wake up our sense of affection, cause our emotional resonance.

[[Correction:]] There are many translation practices guided by communicative translation theory, but not many in Korean novel translation. Therefore, it is of great significance to analyze the translation of Korean novels under the guidance of communicative translation theory. With the communicative translation theory as the theoretical foundation, this paper will take the Chinese translation of two novels "The Innocents" and "The Goat Family" excerpted from the Korean novel collection ''Eun-ju's Movie'' as examples, and analyze the translation methods and translation strategies in lexical, syntactic and rhetorical respects, so as to provide better understanding of Korean novels and more effective guidance for the Korean novel translation practice. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

==Keywords==

Communicative translation theory; Korean novels; Translation methods and strategies

==Introduction==

[[Correction(addition of a transitional paragraph):]] This section will briefly introduce the emergence and development of communicative translation, and the applicability of communicative translation theory to the translation of popular novels. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

===Emergence and Development of Communicative Translation===

According to the function of language, i.e. the purpose for which it is used, Newmark proposes the following three text types: expressive text, informative text, and vocative text.

At the heart of the expressive function is the use of words by the speaker or author to express his or her thoughts and feelings. The author's unique form of language is as important as the content.Expressive function texts emphasise the authority of the original author, and translations should follow the principle of "original author first", faithful to both the content of the ideas expressed by the original author and the language style of the original author, without regard to the reaction of the target reader. The core of the information function is the external context, i.e. all the information about a topic, or the unspeakable reality. At the heart of the information text is the "authenticity" of the content; the author's language is secondary. Translation should be based on the principle of "authenticity first". The call to action is reader-centred and aims to "call the reader to action, to think, to feel". The translation should follow the principle of 'reader first', putting the reader of the target language first. The translator can make full use of the advantages of the incoming language, without adhering to the expressions of the original, so that the translated language can achieve the same effect as the original.

[[Correction:]] The first type is the expressive text. Its core is the expression of feelings and the conveyance of ideas. In this kind of text, the original author's unique language form and content are equally important. Consequently, with regard to the translation of expressive texts, the translator should follow the "author-first" principle, faithful to the original author's ideas and language form, without considering the target-language readers' reaction. The expressive texts include literary works, personal letters, autobiographies and prose. The second type is the informative text. The core of this kind of text is the external context, i.e. all the information about a topic, or the unspeakable reality. Concerning the informative text, the emphasis is placed on authenticity and the reality outside the language, so the translator should follow the "authenticity-first" principle in translation, with the original author's language in the secondary position. The informative texts include the non-literary works, textbooks, academic papers, newspapers and magazines, etc. The third type is the vocative text. This type has the readers-centered feature, calling on the readers to act, think and feel. Therefore, the translator should follow the "readers-first" principle, making full use of the advantages of the target language, and not confined to the original expressions, so that the translated text can produce the same effect as the source text. The vocative texts include product instructions, brochures, advertisements, etc. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

On this basis, two translation concepts, communicative translation and semantic translation, are proposed. Newmark believes that the theory of communicative translation focuses on the understanding and reaction of the recipient, the reader of the translation, and more on the effect rather than the content of the translated expression. The translator can give full play to the advantages of the translated language and introduce foreign elements into the culture of the translated language, with the advantages of naturalisation, Italian translation and idiomatic translation. Semantic translation attaches importance to the original text, focuses on its semantic content and strives to preserve the culture of the original text, and has the advantages of word-for-word, word-for-word and faithful translation. Communicative translation is suitable for informative and attractive texts such as autobiographies, personal emotional declarations, important political statements (or other statements), most non-literary texts, news, intellectual articles and books, textbooks, reports, scientific and technical literature, official correspondence, promotional material, advertisements, announcements, popular fiction. (Yang 1989:68-71)# His communicative and semantic translations have largely enriched the study of translation theory and influenced the field of translation.

[[Correction:]] On this basis, the two translation concepts, communicative translation and semantic translation, are proposed. Newmark believes that the communicative translation theory emphasizes the recipients' or readers' understanding and reaction, and focuses more on the effect that the translation generates than its content. With communicative translation, the translator can give full play to the advantages of the target language, and introduce foreign elements into the target-language culture through domestication and idiomatic translation. At the same time, semantic translation attaches importance to the original text, keeps an eye on its semantic content and strives to preserve the source-language culture, featuring the advantages of literal translation and faithful translation. Communicative translation is suitably applied in informative and attractive texts such as autobiographies, personal emotional declarations, important statements, most non-literary texts, news, intellectual articles and books, textbooks, reports, scientific and technical literature, official correspondence, promotional materials, advertisements, announcements, as well as popular fiction. (Yang 1989: 68-71) Newmark's communicative and semantic translations have largely enriched the study of translation theory and influenced translation field. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

===Applicability of Communicative Translation Theory to the Translation of Popular Novels===

First of all, the core content of communicative translation theory is that on the basis of being faithful to the content of the original text, it focuses on the readers' understanding ability and feelings, and pays more attention to the expression effect of the target text than the content. For the translator, the translator can give full play to the advantages of the target language and get rid of the constraints of the language structure of the original text. If the original text is illogical, ambiguous, and there are redundant words and ambiguities in the sentence, as well as dialects, coarse slang and other phenomena in the article, the translator has the right to reorganize the syntax and improve it by using collocation and common sentence patterns in accordance with the habits of the target language, so as to make the language more standardized. Translators also have the right to correct errors and omissions in the original text.( Shuang 1999(05):840）

[[Correction:]] First of all, communicative translation theory accentuates the core that the translation, based on its faithfulness to the content of the original text, lays stress on the readers' understanding ability and feelings, and pays more attention to the expressive effect of the target-language text than its content. The translator can take advantage of the target language and get rid of the constraints of the language structure of the original text. If the original text is illogical and ambiguous with redundant words and ambiguities in the sentences, as well as dialects, coarse slang and other peculiar language phenomena, the translator has the right to reorganize the syntactic structure, and use collocations as well as common sentence patterns in accordance with the habits of the target language, so as to render the language more standardized and natural and to improve the quality of translation. And the translator is also entitled to correct the errors and omissions in the original text. (Shuang 1999 (05): 840) (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Secondly, according to Newmark's text type, communicative translation theory is applicable to vocative texts, which focus on the inspiring effect and take the target readers as the center. The purpose of translation is to elicit the desired response, including popular books and best-selling novels. The common goal of communicative translation theory and appeal text is to make readers think and resonate emotionally. The novel is mainly composed of characters, plots and descriptions of the environment to reflect the social reality. Novel is a literary genre that conveys thoughts and feelings and arouses readers' resonance. It belongs to appeal text, so communicative translation theory is suitable for novel translation.

[[Correction:]] Secondly, according to Newmark's classification of text types, communicative translation theory is applicable to vocative texts, which stress their inspirational effect and take the target-language readers as the center. The purpose of translation is to elicit the expected response, which also resides in the translation of popular books and best-selling novels. The common goal of communicative translation and the vocative text is to enable readers to think and resonate emotionally. Additionally, the novel, consisting mainly of characters, plots and environmental descriptions, often reflects the social reality. And it is a literary genre that conveys thoughts and feelings and arouses readers' empathy, hence the novel falls into vocative text, and communicative translation theory is available to novel translation. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

The most important thing in novel translation is to convey the content of the original text and the author's thoughts and feelings to the readers, and to arouse the readers' deep thinking and empathy. When translating a novel, the translator should describe the plot of the original text and try to get close to the literary image depicted by the original author and the literary artistic conception created in the novel.

If only follow the content style and text structure of the original text, it will violate the original intention of translation, making the translation obscure and unclear. Under the guidance of communicative translation theory, the translator can give full play to the advantages of the target language, modify and polish the original text, adjust the logic of expression, eliminate the differences between the original text and the target text, and get a smooth translation. At the same time, the translator can also pay more attention to the target readers, fully consider the reading habits and thinking mode of the target readers, and use easy to understand language vocabulary to convey the information of the source text and the thoughts and feelings of the source text author to the readers, so that the target text readers and the source text readers get the same effect.

[[Correction:]] Only limited to the content and textual structure of the original text, the translators will violate the initial intention of translation, making the translation obscure and unclear. Under the guidance of communicative translation theory, the translators can bring the advantages of the target language to full play, modify and polish the original text, adjust the logic of expression, eliminate the differences between the original text and the target text, so that the translation can be more smooth. Meanwhile, the translators can also pay more attention to the target-language readers, take their reading habits and thinking mode into full consideration, and employ easy-to-understand language to convey the information of the source text and the original author's thoughts and feelings, attempting to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

==Case Study under the Guidance of Communicative Translation Theory==

Guided by Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory, the author carries out translation practice on two short stories "The Innocent Man" and "The Goat Family". Under the guidance of communicative translation theory, this section adopts the strategies of translation modification and meaning extension to solve the problems of ambiguous and implicit sentences in novels. At the sentence level, the strategy of paraphrase, syntactic and translation is adopted. In the aspect of rhetoric, this paper adopts the translation strategies of addition and repetition, and makes a case study to explore and summarize the translation methods and strategies applicable to novel subject matter under the guidance of communicative translation theory.

[[Correction:]] Guided by Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory, the paper will carry out analysis of translation strategies in two short stories "The Innocent Man" and "The Goat Family".

===Translation Strategies and Methods under Communicative Translation Theory at Lexical Level===

[[Correction(addition of a transitional paragraph):]] This section, under the guidance of communicative translation theory, will elucidate the application of translation strategies in Korean novel at the lexical level, such as conversion and extension. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

====Conversion====

The translation method refers to the conversion of parts of speech in the original text, such as changing nouns into verbs, adjectives into verbs, etc., so as to make the translation conform to the expression habits of the target language. Different languages have different linguistic phenomena and cultural backgrounds. In order to make the translation more in line with the language expression habits of The Chinese people and convey the correct meaning of the original text to The Chinese readers, every word in the Korean sentence cannot be translated dead, and some parts of speech in The Korean language have to be changed in translation.(Chen 1994)# The following is a case study of translating a part of speech in the original text into another part of speech in Chinese.

[[Correction:]] Conversion at the lexical level refers to the change of parts of speech in the original text, such as the conversion of nouns into verbs, adjectives into verbs, etc., so as to make the translation conform to the target-language expression habits. As a result of the fact that different languages have different linguistic phenomena and cultural backgrounds, in order to make the translation more in line with the expression habits of Chinese language and convey the correct meaning of the original text to the Chinese readers, the words word in the Korean sentences cannot be translated too rigidly, and sometimes the word class in the original text should be changed when translating. (Chen 1994) For example, (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Eg.1 그럴 때의 아이는 이제 노인이 아니라 소년가장 같았다.

First translation：那一刻我觉得孩子不像老人，而像少年家长。

Retranslation：那一刻我觉得他不像一个历经沧桑的老人，而像一个饱经世故的孩子。

"소 년 가 장" is a noun, the author looked up Chinese dictionary, found "소 년 가 장" in Korean means "가 정 의 생 계 를 실 질 적 으 로 책 임 지 고, 어 렵 게 생 계 를 유 지 하 는 소 년", at the beginning of translation, in accordance with the original literal translation is "young parents", but is not in conformity with the Chinese expression habit, it is not easy to let Chinese readers understand, The author in the guidance of communicative translation theory, through the network search and found the dictionary lookup "소 년 가 장" and Chinese proverb "the poor children early master" has the same effect, but here can make statements impassability, in order not to cause the reader to understand the problems, the author give full play to the advantages of the Chinese, the author by using the method of adaptation, Phrases collocation and considering the Chinese habit, the term "소 년 가 장" divided "소 년" and "가 장" two nouns, and the term "가 장" translated into adjectives "world", the "소 년" translated into "children", both to convey the meaning of the original, and can make readers easily understand the content.

Eg.2：거기에 아이가 자신을 만나려 하지 않기 때문에 돈을 주지 않는 것이라는 비난의 말이 반복해서 쓰여 있었기 때문이다.

Translation ：文件上反复指责说孩子不想认他这个父亲，所以不给抚养费。

In the original text 비 난" is a noun, the author according to the original text in translation translated into "document and is accused of child, father didn't want to see him the accused, so not to support", at the same time with the two accused, groundwork or at the back of the verb "blame", also make the repetitive, so the author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, When translated again, the noun "비 project-oriented" is translated into the verb "blame", so that the translation is easy to understand.

====Extension====

Extension translation method is refers to according to the specific context of contact and words in the original context, starting from the basic meaning of Korean original words, through the letter of the word or phrase in the sentence, its excellent implied meaning appropriately, use some conforms to the Chinese expression habit of character words, the content of the original essence of accurate expression.

[[Correction:]] Extension refers to the translation method by which the essence of the original text can be accurately expressed through the use of some expression methods in line with the expression habits of Chinese and the selection of exact and idiomatic Chinese words, according to the internal coherence of the context. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Eg.3：①텔레비전을 쳐다보던 아이가 대뜸 내밷었다. ②동식이 집을 나서자마자 엄마는 휴이히히히, 하는 기괴한 한숨을 길게 내뱉었다.

Translation：①正在看电视的儿子突然吐槽道：“妈，你快看，电视里那个人真像我爸”。 ②母亲就“唉！”长长地叹了一口气。

The author by looking up the dictionary, in the original "내 밷 다" has two meanings: (1) 입 안 에 있 던 것 을 입 밖 으 로 뱉 어 내 보 내 다. (2) 마 음 에 내 키 지 아 니 하 거 나 못 마 땅 한 어 조 로 불 쑥 말 하 다.
Chinese meaning is "vomit, and said," the author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, reader's expressions and words in Chinese habit as the center, contact the original context and context, considering the words collocation, adopt the method of the extension, the "내 밷 다" translated into "fun" and "sigh", not only conforms to the present context, and in accordance with the Chinese language habits.

Eg.4: ①그러니까 엄마는 내가 돈 얘기 할 것을 미리 알고서 지금 차단막을 치는 것이리라. ②형이 옆구리를 툭 치며. ③까지는 살큼 익혀서 찬지름 치고 조선간장으로 조물조물 무쳐노면 고기반찬보다 낫드라.

Translation：①但母亲好像早已看透了我的心思，先堵住了我的口。 ②大哥用胳膊肘戳了我一下。 ③蒸个七八分熟的时候撒上香油好好拌一下就行了，这样比那些荤食都好吃。

The verb "치" would give many different meanings with different words, such as ①"beating, beating, beating, playing".② take, base, wrap, erect, ③ feed, feed, etc. On the basis of communicative translation theory, and fully understand the original meaning, context, and considering Chinese words collocation is used, depending on the context, the extension method was adopted, will "치 다" translated into "blocking", "stamp", "and" verb, such as to conform to the Chinese habits of expression.

===Translation Strategies and Methods under Communicative Translation Theory at Syntactic Level===

Communicative translation theory is pointed out that to the readers, the translator should give full play to the advantages of the target language, to make the translation conform to the target language expression of habit, not to leave any arcane to readers, while Korean and Chinese belong to different language families, there are differences in expression habit, this summary is mainly under the guidance of communicative translation theory, This paper analyzes the translation of sentences in The Pure Man and The Goat Family by means of paraphrase, syntactic and combined translation.

[[Correction:]] Communicative translation theory points out that the translator should give full play to the advantages of the target language and enable the translation to conform to the expression habit of the target language, leaving no arcane to readers. Since Korean and Chinese belong to different language families, there are distinctions in their expression habits. This part, with communicative translation theory as the theoretical basis, will analyze the translation methods at syntactic level in two short stories "The Pure Man" and "The Goat Family". The three methods that will be mainly discussed are interpretation method or paraphrase, demolition syntax or deconstruction, and cotranslation. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

====Interpretation Method====

Hermeneutic method is also an interpretative translation method. Because Chinese and Korean have different expression habits, in the process of translation, we can use the paraphrase method to explain some ambiguous sentences, which can not only make the translation clear, but also accurately convey the original purpose.

[[Correction:]] Interpretation method is also known as hermeneutic method or paraphrase. Considering the differences in expressions habits between Chinese and Korean, in the process of translation, paraphrase method can be used to diminish some ambiguities in sentences, which can not only clarify the sentences in the translation, but also accurately convey the original author's purpose. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Eg.5：어느날, 아이가 눈에 보이는 사물들을 가리켜 얼마짜리냐고 물었을 때, 어떤 행위를 가리켜 얼마 받느냐고 물었을 때, 나는 어린것이 별걸다 궁금해한다고 면박을 줬다. 면박을 주는 것으로 마음에 이는 민망함을 무마시켰다. 아이의 입에서 처음 돈 얘기가 나왔을 때, 그때 나는 이미 알아챘어야 했는지도 모른다.

First Translation: 当某一天，孩子们指着各种东西问花了多少钱，挣了多少钱时，我当面斥责说“小孩子家家的，真是什么都好奇”。我以这种当面驳斥的方式来掩饰心中的尴尬。当我第一次从孩子嘴里听到关于钱的话题时,我可能就已经觉察到了些什么。

Retranslation: 当某一天，孩子们指着各种东西问价格时，我当面斥责说‘小孩子家的，问这个做什么’，以此来掩饰我内心的尴尬。当我第一次从孩子嘴里听到关于钱的话题时，我可能已经觉察到时代变了，我那‘不知钱为何物’的时代过去了。

The author at the beginning of the translation of "그 때 나 는 이 미 알 아 챘 어 야 했 는 지 도 모 른 다", literal translation is "I may already have noticed what", but the specific perceive what is not clear, causing distress to Chinese readers, by contacting the above learned that the "I" as a child is the hairpin, objects such as pottery fragments, But now the child is the "money", the author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, to the readers, adopting the tactics of interpretation method, interpreted "I perceived that the" content "I might have been aware of The Times have changed, I that 'I don't know the money was the era of the past", thus the author want to convey the original concept of the era of the change of the clear expression come out.

Eg.6：영호야, 명절 때만이라도 꼭 아빠한데 가봐, 가기 싫으면 연락이라도 드리고.아빠가 아무리 네 맘에 안 들더라도 너는 네 할 도리를 해야 떳떳한 사람이 되는 거야,알았지?

First Translation: 永浩呀，无论你多么讨厌爸爸，逢年过节的时候也应该去一趟爸爸家，即便不想去也要打一个电话。只有做了自已应该做的才能做一个光明磊落的人，知道吗？

Retranslation: 永浩呀，无论你多么讨厌爸爸，逢年过节的时候也应该去一趟爸爸家，即便不想去也要打一个电话。为人处事和忠孝贤良是亘古不变的，要想做一个光明磊落的人，就要做好自己的分内之事，知道吗？阿姨的话要记住哦。

Early in the translation of "너 는 네 할 도 리 를 해 야 떳 떳 한 사 람 이 되 는 거 야", the corresponding Chinese literal translation is "only do oneself should do can do a aboveboard person", but "할 도 리" what, did not explain clearly in the original, need the reader to consider, in order not to leave readers obscure place, The author puts the advantage of Chinese into full play and interprets "up 도 wish to be good" into English by means of context and translation theory. At the same time, I also think that this is the advice of adults. It is necessary to tell him this truth in a soft and powerful tone. After this sentence, "Remember what aunt said" is added to make the original meaning clearly conveyed to readers, so that readers can better understand the original content.

====Demolition Syntax====

Deconstruction is the breaking down of a long sentence into several shorter sentences. As Korean and Chinese belong to different language families, there are many differences in syntax. The word order of Korean sentences is the structure of SOV, and narration is the main body and focus of the sentence, and there are a large number of long sentences, which rely on word endings to express various grammatical meanings. No amount of sentence elements will cause meaning confusion.

However, the word order of Chinese sentences is the SVO structure, which depends on vocabulary, function words and word order to distinguish sentence components, so the sentence structure is simple, mainly short sentences. The translation of Korean long sentences into Chinese sentence groups can make the translation logical, smooth and accurate.

Eg.7：동식의 이혼에 책임이 없다고 할 수는 없는 형제들이 돈을 모아 동식에게 새집을 지어줬는데 집안 새것이면 뭐 하냐고 동식이 폭력을 휘두를 조짐을 보이자 그 팔아 종류의 폭력을 아버지에게 당해본 엄마는 지레 겁을 먹고 소를 팔아 동식에게 새장가 갈 자금을 쥐여줄 수밖에 없었다.

First Translation：掺和东植离婚案的兄弟姐妹们凑钱给东植盖了新房子。挨过父亲打的母亲因为对东植这种动不动就挥拳头打人的行为心有余悸，并觉得只有新房子没用，就把牛卖了给东植娶了新媳妇。

Retranslation：掺和东植离婚案的兄弟姐妹们凑钱给东植盖了新房子，母亲因为挨过父亲的打，所以对东植这种动不动就挥拳头打人的行为心有余悸，觉得只有新房子无济于事，改不了他的暴力行为，索性就把牛卖了给东植娶了新媳妇。

The original text Is a long sentence, "는 데" is a long attributive clause, behind the author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, using the translation, in the resolution of a sentence, adjust the structure of the sentence, but his father mother "dragged" compared to read man translationese is too heavy, have the taste of Korean Chinese, is not in conformity with the Chinese expression habit, the author on the basis of this, The translation has been revised and polished to make it smooth and smooth.

====Cotranslation====

Cotranslation refers to the combined translation of two or more sentences in the original text. Using the combined translation method to translate, will reduce the long winded translation, obtain a smooth and smooth translation.

[[Correction:]] Cotranslation, also known as combination, refers to the translation method by which two or more sentences in the original text are combined into a single sentence in the target-language text. The use of combined translation can reduce long-windedness and redundancies in translation, obtaining a smooth, natural and lucid translation. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Eg.8 ：나는 큰오빠와 작은오빠가 아버지가 남긴 논을 가져간 것을 알고 있었다. 큰언니, 작은언니가 결혼할 때 밭을 가져 갔다는 것도. 동식은 제 몫이 논도 밭도 아닌 집인 것에 불만을 품고 쓰러져가는 슬레이트집에 불을 질렀다.

First Translation：我知道大哥和二哥结婚时分走了家里的水田，大姐和二姐结婚时分走了家里的旱地，东植因为分到的不是田和地，而是即将坍塌的的石板屋，一气之下就在屋里放了火。

Retranslation：哥哥姐姐们结婚时把家里的水田和旱地都分走了。而东植分到的是即将坍塌的的石板屋，他对此很不满，一气之下就放火烧了房子。

Are two sentences in the original, the author first translation, according to the original text translated into two other subject-predicate bin structure of the sentence, but "big sister" "big brother" "sister" "second brother" will be read repetitive, so the author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, adopt the method of r the appellation of original elements became the "brothers and sisters", and the two sentence elements into a simple sentence, Reduce redundant redundant.

===Translation Strategies and Methods under Communicative Translation Theory at Rhetorical Level===

Communicative translation theory points out that should take the readers as heavy, compared to convey to the readers the article content, pay more attention to the expression effect, good expression effect can cause the resonance of the readers, caused the reader's thinking, and good expression effect depends on the use of rhetoric, this summary is mainly under the guidance of communicative translation theory, adopt different translation strategies, The rhetorical translation in The Innocent Man and The Goat Family is analyzed.

[[Correction:]] In view of communicative translation theory, the translator should take the readers to heart, and pay more attention to the expression effect compared to the conveyance of the content. The excellent expression effect that can engender the readers’ resonance and lead them to think majorly resorts to the use of rhetoric. This section, guided by communicative translation theory, will enunciate the translation methods at the rhetoric level employed in the Chinese translation of the two Korean short stories. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

====Addition====

Addition is a translation method that adds content to the target text in order to accurately express the meaning of the source text, meet the needs of the target text readers and make the target text conform to the expression habits of the target language. Since Chinese and Korean have different pragmatic ways and expressive habits, some words or sentences should be added in the translation to make the translation more consistent with the Chinese context, the reader's expressive habits and the exact meaning of the original text.

[[Correction:]] Addition is a translation method by which some items should be added to the target-language text in order to accurately express the meaning of the source text, make the translation correspond with the expression habits of the target language and meet the the target-text readers' needs. Since Chinese and Korean have different pragmatic ways and expressive modes, some specific words or sentences should be added in the translation to render the translation more consistent with the Chinese context, the readers' reading habits and the concrete meaning of the original text. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

Eg.9：나는 아이 아빠의 돈을 ‘그깟 돈’이라고 표현했다.

First Translation：我把孩子爸爸的钱称为“那么点儿钱”。

Retranslation：我把孩子爸爸给的钱称为“塞牙缝的钱”。

"그깟" is a contraction of "그까짓". It means so little, so little. The amount of money given by the father of the child is very small. The author under the guidance of communicative translation theory, give full play to the advantages of target language, adopt the method of thickening of translation, the use of metaphor, the "그 깟 돈" translated into accord with the readers expression habit "for all of the money", making it easy to understand, more intuitive said the little amount, so as to impress the reader.

====Repetition====

Repetition refers to the translation technique of appropriately repeating a part of words or sentences in translation. The repetition method can make the meaning of the translation more clear, further strengthen the appeal of the article, highlight the thoughts and feelings of the article, and achieve a good rhetorical effect.

Eg.10：아비를 한번도 찾지 않다가 돈 달라고, 그것도 법정에서 애 얼굴을 봐야 하는 아비 된 자의 참담한 심정을 당신들이 아느냐고.

First Translation：孩子一次也没来看过我这个父亲，却开口要钱？而且只有上了法院，我才好不容易看孩子一眼，你们理解我这个做父亲的心情和处境吗！

Retranslation：孩子一次也没来看过我就跟我开口要钱，只有上了法院，我才好不容易看孩子一眼，我这个做父亲的苦楚，悲凉的的心情，你们理解吗！理解吗！

The author by contacting the specific context, as a father, no contact for many years but children themselves to court, the state of mind should be both angry and sad, based on the theory of communicative translation, using the skill of verb repetition, to "알 다" repeated translation, to emphasize my angry tone, in order to make the article more vivid and accurate meaning.

==Conclusion==

This paper selected the south Korean writer Kong Shanyu stories "well bead film" in the two novel "pure people" and "the goat family" has carried on the translation practice, the two novels are using the simple nature of language and a small amount of dialect vocabulary, shape lifelike characters, are described by family members of the past, let the past and reality contrast, It reflects the social reality that with the development of society, people have become selfish and indifferent, and the most simple family and human feelings seem to be more and more far away from us, so as to explore the history and significance of the "family" and the simple social atmosphere, which are gradually forgotten by Koreans.

The core of Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory is that on the basis of being faithful to the content of the original text, the translator can give full play to the advantages of the target language, get rid of the constraints of the language structure of the original text, and pay attention to the effect of the expression of the target text. According to Newmark's text type, communicative translation theory applies to appeal texts, which focus on the target reader and aim to elicit the desired response, including popular books, popular novels and so on. The common goal of communicative translation theory and appeal text is to make readers think and resonate emotionally. Under the guidance of Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory, the author analyzes and discusses the translation strategies in the Pure Man and The Goat Family, which are complicated sentences, ambiguous meanings and implicit expressions.

From the lexical level analysis, the author mainly combined with the context, to Chinese readers as the center, to comply with the Chinese expression and language habits, consider the reader's understanding ability, on the basis of Chinese used to translation and translation methods of extension, so as to satisfy the to the original readers and the translation of the original dual need of the readers have the same effect, At the same time, it also ensures the accuracy and flexibility of the translation words, so as to conform to the translator's lexical habits. From the statement level analysis, "innocent people" and "the goat family" appeared in the text of the long sentence and attributive clause, at the same time, some relatively obscure sentences substance, so the author adopted the method of interpretation, syntax and translation of translation strategies, to explain the sentence, split, reorganization, thus reducing the sentence's mad outages and ideographic unclear, The translation is in line with the habits of Chinese readers and effectively conveys the essence of the original text. From the rhetoric analysis, communicative translation theory points out that compared with the content, should attach great importance to the expression of the translation effect, good expression effect depends on the use of rhetoric, so the author USES the translation strategy of work and repetition, has carried on the modification to the original and polishing, to strengthen the artistic effect and influence of the translation, make readers for the characters vivid impression, Arouse readers' reflection and emotional resonance.

Therefore, the results of this study indicate that the communicative translation theory is of guiding significance to the Chinese translation of Korean novels and can provide a reference for similar translation practices. Communicative translation theory is pointed out that to the reader as the center, the translator can get rid of the original text, giving full play to the advantages of target language to adjust the structure and logic, to make the translation easy to understand, but there may be lack of scattering situation, so the translator should properly our subjective initiative, to insure the effect of readers in at the same time, also used to avoid the above situation. In addition, there are also shortcomings in the translation, but the author still hopes that this translation practice can provide reference for the future Korean-Chinese translation practice. At the same time, through this translation practice, the author has realized his own shortcomings. In the future, the author will continue to learn, accumulate practical experience, and strive to improve his literary accomplishment and language foundation, and improve his translation level.

[[Correction of Conclusion:]]

This paper selects the south Korean writer Kong Shanyu's two short stories "The Innocents" and "The Goat Family" excerpted from the novel collection ''Eun-ju's Movie'', and interprets translation strategies and methods at lexical, syntactic and rhetorical levels in their Chinese translations, under the guidance of Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory. The two stories both boast the simple and natural language as well as a small amount of Korean dialects, along with the lifelike characterization, describing family members of the past and making a contrast between the past and the present reality. The two short novels reflect the social reality that with the development of society, people have become selfish and indifferent, and the family warmth and human feelings seem to be more distant from the individuals, so as to explore the history and significance of the "family" as well as the simple and harmonious social atmosphere, which are gradually forgotten by Koreans.

According to Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory, translation should be faithful to the source text, and the translator can give full play to the advantages of the target language, get rid of the constraints of the source-language structure, and focus on the expressive effect that the target-language text produces. What's more, in the light of the text types categorized by Newmark, communicative translation theory applies to appeal or vocative texts, which keep a close eye on the target-language readers and intend to elicit the desired response, and popular books and novels fall into this text type. Besides, the common goal of communicative translation theory and appeal text is to make readers think and resonate emotionally. In a word, the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of Korean novels guided by communicative translation theory is feasible.

From the analysis in the lexical aspect, this paper demonstrates that the translation techniques --- conversion and extension --- are used in Chinese translation of these two Korean short stories. Such Chinese translation, fully considering the context and taking Chinese readers as the center, complies with the Chinese expression and language habits. Given the readers' understanding capability, the translator employs conversion of word class and extension of lexical meaning, so as to satisfy the needs of both the original readers and the target-language readers. Meanwhile, the use of conversion and extension also ensures the accuracy and flexibility of the translated vocabulary. At the syntactic level, the original two stories embrace a lot of long sentences and attributive clauses, as well as some sentences with relatively obscure substances. Thus, the adoption of paraphrase, deconstruction and combination, which re-explain, split, reorganize the sentences, reduces ideographic unclarity as well as long-wined sentences and diversify the sentence patterns, rendering the translation close to the target-language readers. In the rhetorical respect, communicative translation theory attaches greater importance to the expressive effect of the translation compared with the delivery of the content, and the use of rhetoric can result in exceptional expression effect. Consequently, the application of addition and repetition modifies and polishes the original text, so that the artistic charm of the translation can be enhanced, the desirable impression can be deepened, and the readers' reflection and emotional resonance can be aroused.

To sum up, it can be seen that Peter Newmark's communicative translation theory is of guiding significance to the Chinese translation of Korean novels and can provide a reference for future translation practices. With communicative translation theory, the translator who adheres to the "readers-first" principle can get rid of the limitation of the original text, give full play to the advantages of the target language, and adjust the sentence structure and textual logic, so as to further improve the quality of translation.

However, owing to the confined conditions and limited academic capacity, there are also shortcomings in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only two pieces of Korean short stories as examples in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness and representativeness; secondly, since there are few researchers on Chinese translation of Korean novels at home and abroad, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to elaborate on and improve Chinese translation of Korean novels. (corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC))

==References==

'''English Literature:'''

[1]. GAO Chang. The Application of Peter Newmark's Communicative Translation Theory to the Translation of Chinese Historical Allusions [J]. Overseas English, 2013(11).

[2]. JIAN Fang. Newmark's Translation Theory and Film Names [J]. Overseas English, 2010(08).

[3]. LI Xin, ZHANG Zhe. On Peter Newmark’s Semanic Translation & Communicative Translation[J]. Overseas English, 2015（03）.

'''Korean literature:'''

[4]. Gong Seon-ok. In the 1980s, my literature Gwangju, and my life's hardship [J]. History of Criticism, 1995 (08).

[5]. Kang Young-mi. Preliminary review of the singing movement in the 1970s and 1980s [J]. Mental Culture Research 41(3), 2018.(09).

[6]. Kim Young Hee. Modern and Alternative Experience and Women--Park Wan-seo, Kim In-sook, and Gong Sun-ok's novel [J]. Creation and Criticism 23(3), 1995(09).

[7]. Osunbang. A study of the translation of novels in modern China and the two-way translation of Sino-Korean novels[J]. Seoul: Sungsil University Press, 2008.

'''Chinese Literature:'''

[8]. Chen Lin. A comparison of Eugene A. Naida and Peter Newmark's translation theories [J]. Journal of Xiangtan University (Social Science Edition), 1994,(08): 87-91.

[9]. Si Jitao and Yan Honglan. The translation of split sentences and combined sentences in English-Chinese translation[J]. Journal of Guangxi Right River Nationalities Teachers College,2005(02):21

[10]. Chen Lin. A comparison of Eugene A. Naida and Peter Newmark's translation theory [J]. Journal of Xiangtan University (Social Science Edition), 1994, (08).

[11]. Yang Shi-Zhuo. A brief analysis of Newmark's theory of semantic and communicative translation[J]. Fujian Foreign Language, 1989:68-71.

corrected by--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 05:08, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

=毛雅文On Translation Strategies and Methods in Chinese Translation of English Prose --- Chinese Translation of Robert Lynd’s "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example=

'''浅析英语散文汉译中的翻译策略——以罗伯特·林德《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例'''

[[Trans_Type_EN_4]]

毛雅文 Mao Yawen, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==

Prose, together with poetry, novel and drama, is a kind of literary form. It is not limited to rhythm, plot and characters, flexible in form, real and natural. English prose has a long history and various types, so it becomes an important object in translation practice and research. In China, the most famous English prose writers are Francis Bacon and Charles Lamb, hence, their works can be regarded as the focus of studies on Chinese translation of English prose. In fact, Chinese translation of English prose draws less attention in translation circle of China, compared with that of English poetry and drama. With English prose as the starting point, this paper will introduce the characteristics of English prose and the domestic studies on its Chinese translation, and take the Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the representative work of English modern prose writer Robert Lynd, as an example to analyze its translation strategies and methods.

==摘要==

散文是与诗歌、小说、戏剧并称的一种文体，不拘泥于韵律、情节、人物，形式灵活，真实自然。英语散文历史悠久，类型多样，是翻译实践与研究中的重要研究对象。在我国，最著名的英语散文家是弗朗西斯·培根和查尔斯·兰姆，他们的作品也因此成为英语散文汉译的重点。而事实上，我国翻译界更加重视的是诗歌与小说的汉译，英语散文汉译的研究相较之下比较滞后。本文将以英语散文为切入点，介绍英语散文的特点及其在我国的汉译研究，并以英国现代散文家罗伯特·林德的代表作《无知的乐趣》汉译本为例，主要分析其中的策略及方法。

==Key Words==

"Pleasures of Ignorance"; Chinese translation of English prose; translation strategies; translation methods; translation techniques

==关键词==

《无知的乐趣》；英语散文汉译；翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧

==Introduction==

This chapter will point to the research background and its significance, and briefly set forth the structure of this paper and the methods used.

===Research Background and Significance===

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening-up, the channels of international cultural exchange have become increasingly unblocked, and China's translation industry has also flourished. The studies on translation theory, drawing lesson from western translation studies, have yielded fruitful results, and more noteworthily, remarkable achievements have been made in studies on literary translation for all to see. (Hou Qiang 2014: 1)

Prose is a basic literary form in written or spoken language that typically exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. A large number of works in philosophy, history, economics, journalism, etc, are examples of works written in prose. It can be seen that prose, which is widely used for creation, occupies an important position in literature. However, there are few researchers majoring in prose translation, still fewer ones who specialize in Chinese translation of English prose. In view of the above, this paper, based on previous studies, will study the Chinese translation of English prose, and take the Chinese translation by Liu Bingshan of ''The Pleasures of Ignorance'' created by the English prose writer Robert Lynd, exploring its characteristics in translation strategies and methods, so as to provide better understanding and some reference for the appreciation and translation of English prose. (He Xiuqin 2018: 6) (Song Jie 2018: 1)

===Methodology and Structure===

This paper will employ the methods of literature research and case analysis. The paper consists of three parts. The first section is literature review, explicating the distinctive properties and linguistic features of English prose, and the prose translation with its principles, as well as introducing the previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose at home. The second part, the core of this paper, will take Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation version of Robert Lynd's prose work "Pleasures of Ignorance" as an example, carry out the interpretation of this translation in terms of its types, styles as well as strategies and methods employed. Lastly, the conclusion will point to the findings in this study and the weaknesses in the paper.

==Literature Review==

This part will draw into the domestic previous studies on Chinese translation of English prose.

With regard to Chinese translation of English prose, at present, there are few domestic scholars dedicated to its systematic research. According to the different perspectives, the relevant researches at home can be roughly divided into three categories.

First, concerning research on the theory of Chinese translation of English prose into Chinese, there are relatively small number of studies in this direction. One of the most fruitful works is ''The Study and Translation of British and American Prose'' co-authored by Zhao Xiuming and Zhao Zhangjin (2010), which makes a detailed investigation of the literary characteristics, historical evolution and style evolution of British and American prose. The work also discusses the basic principles of English prose translation in terms of pre-translation text analysis, historical and cultural context, artistic principles, and styles, etc., which can offer a reference for the further study of the theories and practices of English prose translation. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Second, regarding research on the famous translators of English and American prose with their translation styles and skills, Xia Ying explored the style of Professor Cao's translation of Francis Bacon with the essay titled "Research on Professor Cao Minglunss Chinese translation of bacon prose". (Xia Ying, 2012:165-166) Some others probed into Liu Bingshanss and Li Shicong's thoughts on prose translation which have guiding significance for prose translation practice. (Hou Qiang 2014: 4)

Third, as regards research on the practice of Chinese translation English prose based on translation theory, Huang Jianling (2021) analyzed the Chinese translation of Bacon's essays from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Hu Hongyun (2013) translates and elaborates on the British prose Farewell in vocabulary, semantics, style and cultural transmission, on the basis of Eugene Nida's Functional Equivalence theory. (Hou Qiang 2014: 5)

These researches and investigations have laid a solid foundation for future studies and the analysis in this paper.

==Overview of English Prose==

Prose can be defined in broad sense and in narrow sense. In broad sense, prose refers to all the written and oral works in a loose form free from parallelism; and in narrow sense, it specifically means the writings with certain literary qualities, such as essays, and a literary genre juxtaposed with poetry, novel, drama and movie-television literature.

This section will clarify the distinctive characteristics and linguistic features of English prose, as well as its translation principles.

===Distinctive Features of English Prose===

As an independent literary genre, English prose has its own distinctive characteristics.

The first characteristic is its expression of sincere feeling. Prose mostly depicts the real people, things and scenery, and is generated based on record and recollection of life. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. With prose, the author frequently describes his or her personal experiences, which expresses the feelings full of personal traits and style. So in this sense, prose can be considered as an earnest conversation between the author and the readers. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 28)

Secondly, English prose is characterized by the wide material selection. In English prose, one detail, episode and facet of life can be used to display the author's specific emotions and circumstances, and all materials related to the theme can also be employed. It places no emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, like poetry, as well as to plot and characters, like drama. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Besides, English prose features the free and loose structure. The structure of prose writings is free and flexible. Prose is elastic and natural and boasts descriptive, argumentative and lyrical qualities, thereof constituting its most distinctive advantage. There are no strict restrictions and fixed patterns in the prose structure, but its flexibility and randomness is not tantamount to disorder and scatter, and its choice of theme and expression of feelings should be closely centered on one main line. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

===Linguistic Features of English Prose===

Compared with other literary forms, prose has no more skills to resort to. Therefore, as regards the form of artistic expression, English prose mainly has recourse to its own language features.

First and foremost, succinctness and fluency characterize English prose language. The concise prose language not only fully delivers the content that the author intends to convey, but effectively shows the author's emotions and attitude towards persons and things. This is not the result of the author's deliberate elaboration, but the natural overflow of his or her plain and pure emotion. The fluency of prose language refers to both the informal use of words and phrases, and the author's sound expression of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 29)

Meanwhile, colloquial style and literary grace are characteristic of prose language. As prose mainly focuses on description of the author's personal stories and sentiments, thus, he speaks or writes with his own posture, style and tone, as if he is confiding to the readers, so as to highlight the agreeable conversation style and unique colloquial style. Colloquial prose language is natural due to its simplicity, friendly owing to its ease of communication, and true thanks to its individuality. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Furthermore, another linguistic feature of English prose is the smooth rhythm and reading. The rhythmic beauty of prose language is reflected in phonetic respect and in sentence patterns. The prose reading is catchy, with no obstacles and awkwardness, and its rhythm is in line with the natural law of oral breathing pauses as well as with the ups and downs of feelings. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

===Principles of English Prose Translation===

The beauty of prose lies in its language and artistic conception, the two permeating each other and jointly creating the artistic charm of prose. In prose translation practice, the following principles can be observed to reproduce the artistic appeal.

Keep an eye on sound and rhythm. Despite that the sound and rhythm of prose are often internal, not as obvious, regular and musical as that of poetry, they are not disordered with no aesthetic purpose. On the contrary, they effectively represent the variation of emotion in the prose, and are consistent with its unique aesthetic interest. This illustrates that in prose translation, on the one hand, the translators should recognize the great value and significance of prose sound and rhythm; on the other hand, with the intention of reproducing the linguistic subtleties of the original text, the translators can fully touch its aesthetic interest from the cadence between the lines, and perceive its inner rhythm from sentence length and speech speed. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 30)

Pay attention to personalized mode of discourse. Different writers with various discourse modes bring about manifold writing styles. Not only is the personalized mode of discourse reflected in the author's choice of words and sentences as well as layout of the prose, but also in his thoughts and aesthetic interest. As a result, the translators can start with analyzing the original writer's one classic work and then his anthology and even look closely at the literary features of his age, in order to grasping the writer's personalized discourse mode, which is of particular importance to reproduce his artistic personality and the characteristics of his emotional expression in translation practice. (Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

Place a premium on the unity of scene and emotion. The unity of scene and interest in prose is embodied in diverse ways of language expression and structure, as well as the images or settings created by the author. In translation practice, based on the unity of scene and interest in the prose, it is beneficial to preserve and reproduce the overall aesthetic orientation of the original text through aesthetic reconstruction in word selection and layout, so that the translated text can obtain the aesthetic taste similar to the original prose.(Zhang Baohong 2011: 31)

All in all, a general understanding of English prose can facilitate the study of its Chinese translation.

==Case Study of Chinese Translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance"==

The selected source text is "The Pleasures of Ignorance", written by Robert Lynd.

Robert Lynd (1879-1949), born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, was a modern critic and prose writer. He, together with E. V. Lucas, was a pioneer in reviving the tradition of Charles Lamb's prose. And The Pleasures of Ignorance is one of his notable prose works.

This prose points out that it is because ignorance that people are interested in the nature and the world and their pursue knowledge, and the process of seeking knowledge is full of pleasure, by which the author emphasizes the importance of learning more and gaining insight. The article reveals somewhat erudition and aesthetic sensibility, as well as love for nature and and passion for life. From his leisurely writing, the author's maturity of thought and capability in usage of words is unveiled. Though the tone of the original text makes the readers feel that the author is chatting with them, giving people familiarity and closeness, it is not particularly colloquial. On the contrary, there is a kind of exactness and elegance of the learned between the lines, thus it can be seen that the case text is a typical scholar prose. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

The translator Professor Liu Bingshan firmly grasps these features of the original text and conveys the original style by carefully choosing words and sentences, with the principles of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness. His Chinese translation of "The Pleasures of Ignorance" will be analyzed in terms of translation strategies and methods. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 326)

There is the natural connection between translation strategies and translation methods, but the two concepts are often confused. It is generally believed that translation strategies (such as foreignization and domestication) are at the cultural level, while the translation methods (such as literal translation and free translation) are at the textual level. Translation methods are the approaches, steps and techniques used to achieve a specific translation purpose based on a certain translation strategy in translation activities, whereas translation strategies are a collection of principles and methods. Consequently, this paper will enunciate the translation text on the basis of translation methods under foreignization strategy and domestication strategy respectively. (Xiong Bing 2014: 84)

===Translation Methods under Foreignizing Strategy===

Foreignization is a strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. This strategy is "an ethnodeviant pressure on target-language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" to have alien reading experience. The translation methods under foreignization employed in Professor Liu's target text include literal translation, zero-translation and transliteration. (Venuti, 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 13)

====Literal Translation====

Literal translation is in fact looser renditions that replace individual source language words with individual target language wors wherever possible, and cling as closely as possible to the source language word order in the target language. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Specifically, in the case translation text, the translator faithfully retains some personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in the original text. For example,

(1)It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance.

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(2)This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable.

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸。

(3)But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos.

但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。

(4)A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England.

一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。

The translation of these sentences, though properly altering the word order and voice with the adherence to the target-language syntactic norms, does not adopt the usage of transferred meaning in dealing with lexical sense.

The use of literal translation, especially the retaining of the personal pronouns, like "we" and "you and I", conveys the style of the original text, showing friendliness and intimacy.

====Zero-Translation====

Zero translation refers to the translation in which the translators do not use the ready-made words in the target language to translate the source language words. This translation phenomenon occurs when adjustments must be made due to the differences in the syntactic structures of the two languages. For example, some articles and personal pronouns are not translated in E-C translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011: 108)

In Professor Liu's Translation, zero-translation is particularly displayed by omission, a translation technique. For instance,

Omission of the expletives ''It'' and ''There'':

(5)''It'' is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one's own ignorance.

任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。

(6)''There'' are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy.

这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。

Omission of English articles:

(7)Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between ''a'' beech and ''an'' elm, between ''the'' song of ''a'' thrush and ''the'' song of ''a'' blackbird.

成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

Omission of pronouns:

(8)... as she (the cuckoo) lays ''her'' egg on the ground and takes it in ''her'' bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide.

把蛋下到地面上，然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。

The application of zero-translation can render the translation text concise, neat and fluent, and make the rhythm of the prose more natural and flexible, conforming to the principle of prose translation.

====Transliteration====

Proper names such as the names of persons and places of foreign countries, are, as a rule, to be transliterated, i.e., to be translated by using Chinese characters to represent the sound in articulating these names. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 344)

In transliteration, the translators should follow the original pronunciation of proper names, in Liu's translation, for example,

(9)Hamlet 哈姆雷特 Pickwick 匹克威克 (both transliterated from English)

Besides, in transliteration, the translators sometimes should also use the standard pronunciation of the Chinese characters. One of the difficulties in transliterating a foreign name in Chinese characters lies in the lack of many foreign sounds in Chinese, and the variation in the pronunciation of the Chinese characters causes confusion. The remedy is to fix certain Chinese characters for a certain syllable of foreign names. And many long-standing translated names, though not named after the original sounds, have been recognized by the world and are generally invariable. (Lian Shuneng 2006: 346)

For example, in the translation in case study. For example, in the translation in case study,

(10)Montaigne 蒙田 (not 蒙泰涅)

Transliteration plays a crucial role in translation of proper nouns and technical terms, which ensures the correct conveyance of information.

The translation methods under foreignization are able to make the translation process more visible, by means of showing how translators are deeply involved in the construction of culture and ideology. The use of these methods can retain the foreignness of the source text and produce on the target-language readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, through which the readers can further understand the foreign expressions and cultures, realizing the differences between the two countries.

===Translation Methods under Domesticating Strategy===

Domestication is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. This strategy is "an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home". In other words, as regards the use of domesticating strategy, the translators are required to make target-language readers feel familiar and close through conveying the content of the original text with the expressions to which TL readers are accustomed. And in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", free translation method and imitation method under domestication are used and displayed in several translation techniques. (Venuti 2004: 20) (Lian Shuneng 2006: 14)

====Free Translation====

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, emphasizes transfer of the meaning or "spirit" of a source text over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of this method is to accommodate the needs of the target-language readers by producing a text which conforms to the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture which does not therefore sound "foreign". (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2014: 59)(Lian Shuneng 2006: 12)

Such a method, in this case study, is specifically embodied in the choice of words packed with Chinese characteristics, that is, diction, also a translation technique. For example,

(11)Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is ''the exception''.

在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是''凤毛麟角''。

(12)It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we ''have not noticed'' them.

所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们''习焉不察''。

(13)When in the oak’s green arms the cuckoo ''sings'',

And first delights men in the ''lovely springs''.

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里''啭啼''，

第一个为人们带来''欢欣、美好的春意''。

In translating these sentences, the translator transfers some words into vocabulary or phrases with conspicuously Chinese features. For instance, the transfer of "the exception" and "have not noticed" to Chinese idioms "凤毛麟角" (that describes rare and precious items) and "习焉不察" (which means that one is too accustomed to something to call it in questions), respectively, exemplifies the typical Chinese four-character structure. Moreover, the verb "sings" is transferred to "啭啼" (that describes birds' melodious chirp), a Chinese term composed of two words with the same left side, which is one of common and special linguistic phenomena in Chinese language. Meanwhile, "the lovely springs" is transferred to "欢欣、美好的春意" (a joyful and wonderful feeling brought by the spring) through abstraction.
Thus, it can be seen that the application of free translation can reproduce the sense of the original text more smoothly and idiomatically. And the wide adoption of the four-character structures enhance the academic atmosphere of the translation version.

====Imitation====

With regard to the use of imitation, the translators do not stick to the meaning details of the original text, let alone its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but take the original text as a reference model, either by deleting and condensing to only translate its gist and key information, or by adding and expanding to deliver more information than that in the original text. For instance, (Xiong Bing 2014: 85)

(14)Thousands of ''men and women'' ''live and die'' ''without knowing'' the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird.

成千上万的''男男女女''，''从生到死''，''一辈子''也''说不出''山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，''听不出''画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。

In the translation of this sentence, a variety of translation techniques are employed.

①　Conversion:

The translator uses conversion to alter the syntactic structure of the original sentence.

The predicate "live and die" is converted into the preposition phrase "从生到死" as the adverbial in Chinese.

And the adverbial preposition phrase in the source text "without knowing" is converted into the predicate in Chinese translation.

②　Division:

In accordance with the need of Chinese expression, "without knowing" is divided into two verb phrases "说不出" and "听不出" in Chinese as the predicate.

③　Addition:

With the addition of the expression "一辈子", the translator highlights the long time between life and death.

④　Repetition:

The plural form "men and women" is translated into the reiterative locution "男男女女" by repetition.

The change of sentence structure via techniques such as conversion and division as well as of vocabulary via repetition and addition render the translation natural and smooth, showing the translator’s superb handling of the original text.

(15)...we are all the ''more'' delighted ''at the spectacle of'' its ''runaway flight'' as it (the cuckoo) ''hurries'' from wood to wood conscious of its crimes ...

一日''看见''它（杜鹃）因为自己犯了罪而''煌惶不安地''从这个林子飞''逃''向那个林子 ... 我们才会觉得''大大''开心。

In this example, there are also various translation techniques used.

①　Conversion:

Firstly, the preposition phrase "at the spectacle of" is converted into the verb "看见" in Chinese.

Secondly, the noun phrase "runaway flight" is converted into Chinese verbs "飞" (fly) and "逃" (escape).

Besides, the verb "hurries" (that means to move quickly in a particular direction) is converted into "惶惶不安地" (which means to feel panic, afraid and utterly uneasy), a Chinese adverb to modify the verbs "飞" and "逃", which endows the subject cuckoo with somewhat human characteristic.

②　Repetition:

The adjective "more" is translated into the reiterative locution "大大", a Chinese adverb equivalent to "very" or "extremely" in English to modify the adjective "delighted".

In this example, the adjustment of the sentence order and conversion of parts of speech make the translation more consistent with the word sequence in Chinese. Meanwhile, the choice of words such as the Chinese four-character structure "惶惶不安" conveys the romantic charm beyond the original text. And there are also indicators of use of repetition embodied in the typical Chinese reiterative locutions like "惶惶" and "大大".

(16)I have myself a ''capricious'' and ''leaking'' memory.

我自己的记忆力也是''漏洞百出''、''不听使唤''。

Although this is a short sentence, it still contains the flexible use of translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

At first, the original object "memory" is converted to the subject in the Chinese translation.
And then, the subject "I" with its appositive "myself" is converted into the attribute "我自己的" to modify the subject in the translation "记忆".

②　Addition:

On account of the conversion of the subject and the verb, the original predicate "have" is inappropriate. The addition of "也是" that is equivalent to the verb "be" in English enforces the completeness of sentence structure. And this is a structural addition mainly due to the structural difference between Chinese and English.

③　Diction:

The two vivid adjective "capricious" and "leaking" are translated as "不听使唤" and "漏洞百出" respectively which are typical Chinese four-character structures. The Chinese adjective "漏洞百出(的)" means that the loopholes appear one after another, which is often used to describe that one's writing or speech is untenable because of lack of sufficient reasons and grounds. And here, this word shows the author's weak memory with which he forgets things time and again. And the other adjective "不听使唤(的)" generally depicts that someone loses control and is not obedient to the rules or instructions. Here, the word properly demonstrates that the author cannot manipulate his memory well and also cannot preclude it from being weaker. The use of these two words conforms to the choice of affective and stylistic meanings.

In this example, the conversion of the subject and object as well as the change of the predicate enable the translation to be more closely accord with the Chinese sentential structure. Moreover, the two figurative adjectives packed with personified traits not only fully convey the author's intention, but also enhance literariness of the translation and even display a lively mood beyond the original text.

(17)We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and ''not succeeds'' the fruit of the apple-tree, but ''this does not lessen our amazement at'' the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

另外，我们知道苹果树''先''开花，''后''结果，可是五月''一旦''到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。''我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？''

This is a typical example of the imitation method embodied in the use of diverse translation techniques.

①　Conversion:

Regarding the conversion of word classes, the noun "blossom" is converted into the Chinese verb "开花".

Concerning the conversion of sentence members, the object in the clause "apple-tree" is converted into the subject "苹果树" in the Chinese translation. And the attribute "May" is converted into the adverbial in Chinese as "五月一旦到来".

Considering the conversion of sentence patterns, the negative sentence "this does not lessen our amazement at..." is converted into a interrogative sentence "我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？".

②　Negation:

The negative form "not succeeds" in English is translated into the affirmative form "后结果" in Chinese, intensifying a positive tone on which Chinese language often places emphasis.

③　Division:

The original complicated sentence in English is divided into several simplex clauses and phrases in Chinese, which underlines the "chronicle style" of Chinese language with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.

④　Addition:

Now that the original sentence is divided into smaller components, it is necessary to supply connectors for better cohesion. The addition of the logical connectors in Chinese such as "先", "后", "一旦" and "仍然" render the translation more smooth and expressive.

In this instance, the translator flexibly takes advantage of the techniques such as conversion, negation and division, not only contributing to the diversity of sentence patterns but also adding sense of warmth and vividness of the translation. Additionally, the semantic addition of logical connectors render the translation more cohesive and coherent.

(18)Once more I shall ''see'' the world as a garden through ''the eyes'' of a stranger, ''my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields''.

那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，''放眼四望''，''五色缤纷''的原野再一次使我''目不暇接''，''心迷神醉''。

As regards this example, the translator enriches the meaning of the original text and creates a more balmy atmosphere by employing various translation techniques.

①　Division:

The long complex sentence, composed of two clauses, is divided into several separated clauses in arranged in a certain order, which renders the translation rhythmic and highlights the focus of expression.

②　Addition:

The addition of the Chinese set phrase "目不暇接" (which means that so many wonderful things and so swift change of scenery come into sight that the eyes are kept fully occupied) makes the context more coherent, as it echoes "see" and "the eyes" in the preceding and connects the "painted fields" in the following that greet the author's eyes and take his breath away.

③　Diction:

The verb "see" is translated into "放眼四望" (to look around), the noun phrase "breath taken away with surprise" into "心醉神迷" (to be thrown into ecstasies), and the adjective "painted" into "五彩缤纷" (colorful). These recurring four-character structures in translation are loaded with positive meanings, and proper to depict the attractive scenery and to be used in scholar prose.

④　Conversion:

The original clause "my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields" is in passive voice, and is converted into the active voice in Chinese translation "五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉". This kind of conversion is due to the fact that the Chinese passive form marked by "被" is traditionally felt to be an "inflictive voice", mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable, contrasted with the cheerful aura overflowing the original text.

The translator employs short clauses separated from the original complex sentence to bestow smoothness and naturalness on the translation and strengthen its artistic appeal. Furthermore, the translator selects the words that tally with the affective, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original. And the opportune addition of words and change of voice also polish the translation.

The reasonable use of the imitation translation method can make the translation more idiomatic and vivid, and even enable the translation overshadow the original text in terms of showcasing the artistic and aesthetic charm.

In a word, translation methods under domesticating strategy will involve he careful selection of texts which lend themselves to being translated in this manner, the conscious adoption of a fluent, natural-sounding target language style, the adaptation of target text to conform to target discourse types, the interpolation of explanatory material, the removal of source language REALIA and the general harmonization of target text with target language preconceptions and preferences. These methods can render the translation highly literary, aesthetic and readable, and also can to some extent optimize the source text. The appropriate application of domesticating translation is able to even become a sublimation of the original.

==Conclusion==

This paper makes an analysis of translation strategies and translation methods in English prose, with translator Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" created by Robert Lynd as an example. With translation strategies and methods as the starting point, this paper considers Chinese translation of English prose as the research subject. The paper first introduces English prose along with its distinctive properties, linguistics features and principles of its translation. And then this paper carries out the interpretation of translation strategies and methods in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance" in which the application of translation methods as well as techniques under foreignizing and domesticating strategies are elaborated, and the concrete effects they exert are also elucidated.

===Major Findings===

Based on the above study of translation strategies and methods employed in Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation of "Pleasures of Ignorance", the features or common ground of Chinese translation of English prose in terms of translation strategies and methods can be generally summarized.

In Chinese translation of English prose, foreignization strategy and domestication strategy are both used in the light of the style, linguistic features, and syntactic structures of the source text.

But, on the whole, the domesticating translation strategy which includes translation methods such as free translation and imitation is applied more frequently compared with foreignization. This is because that prose translation actually falls into literary translation that is special on the grounds of the unique characteristics of the original literary works. In literary works, or specifically, in English prose, some words are not used with their literal meanings but their connotative or extension meanings, so literal translation under foreignization may not correctly convey the real significance of the original text. Meanwhile, in English prose, there are complex syntactic structures whose translation cannot be carried out with no proper conversion and alteration. Additionally, multiple rhetoric devices such as metaphor, metonymy and allusion are used in English literary works, and the literal translation of these figures of speech may elude the target-language readers because of the cultural differences and the obscurity of the translation. However, the appropriate adoption of translation methods under domestication strategy, to some extent, can give the target-language readers a sense of closeness and deliver the aesthetic charm with the premise that the real meaning of the original text can be ensured.

In terms of translation methods under foreignizing strategy, literal translation is used when the lexical meaning of the source text is lucid and the syntactic structures in it are relatively simple and clear, so the translators need not find a new path in the mode of expression in order to be faithful to the source text. And the use of literal translation can convey the information more objectively and avoid the interference of translators' subjective factors. Meanwhile, in Chinese translation of English prose, the use of zero-translation is frequent but imperceptible, with the omission of some words peculiar to English, such as expletives it and there, English articles and pronouns, but sometimes the English pronouns can also be retained to show a sense of closeness and friendliness. Besides, transliteration is used for the translation of proper nouns and technical terms not only in English prose but also in almost all text types, with conforming to the principles of being named after the original sound and of the translated names accepted through common practice. In a word, translation methods under foreignization can ensure the objective conveyance of information of the original text and preserve its foreignness and unique cultural values that can enrich the target-language readers' knowledge and their languages.

With regard to translation methods under domesticating strategy, in Chinese translation English prose, free translation and imitation method are oftentimes employed. English prose, as one of the English literary genres, boasts distinctive features of literature, such as aesthetic value, language with hidden meanings and the usual use of figures of speech as well as culturally loaded images, which may not be shown vividly and be easily understood by target-language readers via literal or word-for-word translation. Thus, translation methods under domestication, with careful choice of words, proper adjustment of syntactic structures and sentence sequence, and appropriate sublimation of the original text, can express the original author's feelings more lively, render the translation more fluent, idiomatic and expressive, and display the aesthetic charm of the source text.

At the lexical level, in Chinese translation of English prose, the translation techniques --- diction, addition, conversion and repetition --- are usually used. The typical Chinese four-character structures appear time from time in Chinese translation, and the translators choose the words in line with the affectionate, contextual and stylistic meanings of the original prose, which intensify literariness and satisfy the characteristics of scholar prose. Moreover, the addition of Chinese conjunctive words and logical connectors by which sentences in translation are connected into a text can create better cohesion. Furthermore, the conversion of word classes in translation is based on the contrastive studies of English and Chinese, viz., English with its nominal style is static whereas Chinese with its verbal style is dynamic. Besides, it is one of the peculiarities of Chinese to reduplicate characters or words in word-formation and to repeat the similar or same word or expression in a discourse for expressiveness and parallelism, which can render translation more appealing to Chinese readers and produce rhetorical and grammatical effect.

At the syntactic level, the translation techniques --- conversion and division--- are often employed in Chinese translation of English prose. To start with, conversion in the syntactic respect involves conversions of sentence members, sentence patterns and the voice. The conversion of word classes often results in the conversion of sentence members, and the alteration of sentences patterns like the inter-conversion between assertive or negative sentences and question sentences can variegate sentence types in translation. The conversion of passive voice in English prose into active voice in Chinese translation is due to the preference for active forms that can produce positive effect in Chinese language. What's more, part of sentences in English prose are longer and complicated because of subordination, a fundamental feature of English, and it may be hard to reproduce the original thought with following the original sentence structure in translation, hence the division of complex English sentences into word-groups, clauses or simplex sentences in Chinese can endow Chinese translation of English prose with more naturalness, fluency and sense of rhythm.

The research on the features of translation strategies and methods in Chinese translation of English prose, theoretically can offer a deeper insight into English prose and its translation, and practically can help to some extent improve the quality of Chinese translation of English prose.

===Limitations and Suggestions===

There are drawbacks in this paper: firstly, the paper takes only one piece of English prose as an example in case study, so it lacks strong persuasiveness; secondly, since there are few researchers on prose translation at home and abroad, especially those specializing in Chinese translation of English prose, this paper resorts to insufficient literature guidance and reference; thirdly, owing to the confined conditions and narrow academic capacity, this paper is devoid of enough depth and breadth as well as favorable insight and acuity, thus the theoretical support and practical assistance it provides are bound to be limited. As a consequence, it is expected that researchers in this field can cooperate well to build up a system to minimize the possible errors and create more thorough and holistic works to enunciate and improve Chinese translation of English prose.

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==Appendix==

(The original text:)

The Pleasures of Ignorance

By Robert Lynd

It is impossible to take a walk in the country with an average townsman—especially, perhaps, in April or May—without being amazed at the vast continent of his ignorance. It is impossible to take a walk in the country oneself without being amazed at the vast continent of one’s own ignorance. Thousands of men and women live and die without knowing the difference between a beech and an elm, between the song of a thrush and the song of a blackbird. Probably in a modern city the man who can distinguish between a thrush's and a blackbird's song is the exception. It is not that we have not seen the birds. It is simply that we have not noticed them. We have been surrounded by birds all our lives, yet so feeble is our observation that many of us could not tell whether or not the chaffinch sings, or the colour of the cuckoo. We argue like small boys as to whether the cuckoo always sings as he flies or sometimes in the branches of a tree-whether Chapman drew on his fancy or his knowledge of nature in the lines:

When in the oak's green arms the cuckoo sings,

And first delights men in the lovely springs.

This ignorance, however, is not altogether miserable. Out of it we get the constant pleasure of discovery. Every fact of nature comes to us each spring, if only we are sufficiently ignorant, with the dew still on it. If we have lived half a lifetime without having ever seen a cuckoo, and know it only as a wandering voice, we are all the more delighted at the spectacle of its runaway flight as it hurries from wood to wood conscious of its crimes and at the way in which it halts hawk-like in the wind, its long tail quivering, before it dares descend on a hillside of fir-trees where avenging presences may lurk. It would be absurd to pretend that the naturalist does not also find pleasure in observing the life of the birds, but his is a steady pleasure, almost a sober and plodding occupation, compared to the morning enthusiasm of the man who sees a cuckoo for the first time, and, behold, the world is made new.

And, as to that, the happiness even of the naturalist depends in some measure upon his ignorance,which still leaves him new worlds of this kind to conquer. He may have reached the very Z of knowledge in the books, but he still feels half ignorant until he has confirmed each bright particular with his eyes. He wishes with his own eyes to see the female cuckoo—rare spectacle!—as she lays her egg on the ground and takes it in her bill to the nest in which it is destined to breed infanticide. He would sit day after day with a field-glass against his eyes in order personally to endorse or refute the evidence suggesting that the cuckoo does lay on the ground and not in a nest.And, if he is so far fortunate as to discover this most secretive of birds in the very act of laying, there still remain for him other fields to conquer in a multitude of such disputed questions as whether the cuckoo’s egg is always of the same colour as the other eggs in the nest in which she abandons it. Assuredly the men of science have no reason as yet to weep over their lost ignorance. If they seem to know everything, it is only because you and I know almost nothing. There will always be a fortune of ignorance waiting for them under every fact they turn up. They will never know what song the Sirens sang to Ulysses any more than Sir Thomas Browne did.

If I have called in the cuckoo to illustrate the ordinary man's ignorance, it is not because I can speak with authority on that bird. It is simply because, passing the spring in a parish that seemed to have been invaded by all the cuckoos of Africa, I realized how exceedingly little I, or anybody else I met, knew about them. But your and my ignorance is not confined to cuckoos. It dabbles in all created things, from the sun and moon down to the names of the flowers. I once heard a clever lady asking whether the new moon always appears on the same day of the week. She added that perhaps it is better not to know, because, if one does not know when or in what part of the sky to expect it,its appearance is always a pleasant surprise. I fancy, however, the new moon always comes as a surprise even to those who are familiar with her time-tables. And it is the same with the coming-in of spring and the waves of the flowers. We are not the less delighted to find an early primrose because we are sufficiently learned in the services of the year to look for it in March or April rather than in October. We know, again, that, the blossom precedes and not succeeds the fruit of the apple-tree, but this does not lessen our amazement at the beautiful holiday of a May orchard.

At the same time there is, perhaps, a special pleasure in relearning the names of many of the flowers every spring. It is like rereading a book that one has almost forgotten. Montaigne tells us that he had so bad a memory that he could always read an old book as though he had never read it before. I have myself a capricious and leaking memory. I can read Hamlet itself and The Pickwick Papers as though they were the work of new authors and had come wet from the press, so much of them fades between one reading and another. There are occasions on which a memory of this kind is an affliction, especially if one has a passion for accuracy. But this is only when life has an object beyond entertainment. In respect of mere luxury, it may be doubted whether there is not as much to be said for a bad memory as for a good one. With a bad memory one can go on reading Plutarch and The Arabian Nights all one's life. Little shreds and tags, it is probable, will stick even in the worst memory, just as a succession of sheep cannot leap through a gap in a hedge without leaving a few wisps of wool on the thorns. But the sheep themselves escape,and the great authors leap in the same way out of an idle memory and leave little enough behind.

And, if we can forget books, it is as easy to forget the months and what they showed us, when once they are gone. Just for a moment I tell myself that I know May like the multiplication table and could pass an examination on its flowers, their appearance and their order. Today I can affirm confidently that the buttercup has five petals. (Or is it Six? I knew for certain last week.) But next year I shall probably have forgotten my arithmetic, and may have to learn once more not to confuse the buttercup with the celandine. Once more I shall see the world as a garden through the eyes of a stranger, my breath taken away with surprise by the painted fields. I shall find myself wondering whether it is science or ignorance which affirms that the swift (that black exaggeration of the swallow and yet a kinsman of the humming-bird) never settles even on a nest, but disappears at night into the heights of the air. I shall learn with fresh astonishment that it is the male, and not the female,cuckoo that sings. I may have to learn again not to call the champion a wild geranium, and to rediscover whether the ash comes early or late in the etiquette of the trees. A contemporary English novelist was once asked by a foreigner what was the most important crop in England. He answered without a moment's hesitation: "Rye". Ignorance so complete as this seems to me to be touched with magnificence; but the ignorance even of illiterate persons is enormous. The average man who uses a telephone could not explain how a telephone works. He takes for granted the telephone, the railway train, the linotype, the aeroplane, as our grandfathers took for granted the miracles of the gospels. He neither questions nor understands them. It is as though each of us investigated and made his own only a tiny circle of facts. Knowledge outside the day's work is regarded by most men as a gewgaw. Still we are constantly in reaction against our ignorance. We rouse ourselves at intervals and speculate. We revel in speculations about anything at all—about life after death or about such questions as that which is said to have puzzled Aristotle, "why sneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night to noon unlucky." One of the greatest joys known to man is to take such a flight into ignorance in search of knowledge. The great pleasure of ignorance is, after all, the pleasure of asking questions. The man who has lost this pleasure or exchanged it for the pleasure of dogma, which is the pleasure of answering, is already beginning to stiffen. One envies so inquisitive a man as Jowett, who sat down to the study of physiology in his sixties. Most of us have lost the sense of our ignorance long before that age. We even become vain of our squirrel’s hoard of knowledge and regard increasing age itself as a school of omniscience. We forget that Socrates was famed for wisdom not because he was omniscient but because he realized at the age of seventy that he still knew nothing. (Zhu Mingju 2007: 319-322)

(Liu Bingshan's Chinese translation:)

无知常乐

刘炳善译

同一个普通的城里人到乡下去走一走，特别是在四月或五月里，那么。对他的无知范围之广阔，就不能不感到惊奇。任何人独自到乡下去走一走，他对于自己的无知范围之广阔，都不能不感到惊奇。成干上万的男男女女，从生到死，一辈子也说不出山毛榉和榆树有什么区别，听不出画眉的叫声和山乌鸦的叫声有什么不同。在一个现代化城市里，能听得出画眉和山乌鸦叫声不同的人，恐怕是凤毛麟角。所以如此，并不是因为这些鸟我们没有见过，而只是因为我们习焉不察。在我们一生中，鸟类始终就在我们周围，然而我们对于它们的观察总是那样马马虎虎，所以我们当中许多人都说不清花鸡到底会不会知，也不知道杜鹃究竟是什么颜色。对于有些问题、我们像小孩子一样争论不休、譬如说，杜鹃在飞着或栖身于树枝间的时候，是否一直不停地鸣，而查普曼下面两行诗的灵感究竟是来自他的想像还是来自他的自然知识∶

杜鹃在橡树的绿色怀抱里啭啼，

第一个为人们带来欢欣、美好的春意。

不过，这种无知也并非全然不幸，因为正是由于它，我们才能不断尝到发现的乐趣。只要我们是的的确确地无知，那么每年大地春回，自然界的每一种事物都会带着它那清新的露珠重新出现在我们面前。如果我们活了半辈子，对于杜鹃除了听过它那飘忽不定的叫声，从来没有见过它是什么模样，那么，一日看见它因为自己犯了罪而煌惶不安地从这个林子飞逃向那个林子。或是看见它顶着风、像老鹰似的停留在半空中，它那长长的尾巴颤动着，不敢落下来，生怕有什么鸟儿藏在那山坡上的枞树林里等着要找它报仇。我们才会觉得大大开心。有人想着，博物学家整天观察鸟类，大概就不会觉得有什么趣儿了吧？其实大谬不然--他那持续不断的乐趣几平已经变成一种安详的职业习惯了，不像有人某天早晨突然第一次看见一只杜鹃，不胜雀跃之至，于是，看哪，天地也为之焕然一新了。

说到这儿，甚至连博物学家的快乐在一定程度上也有赖于自己的无知；只有如此。才能给他留出一些新的领域有待他去征服。即使他已经攀登了书本知识的顶峰，他仍会感到自己不过是半通不通，每一个引人注目的细节还必须用自己的亲眼观察来加以一一证实。他盼着能亲眼看到雌杜鹃（这可是个稀罕物儿！）把蛋下到地面上。然后再用尖嘴把它叨进那注定要发生杀婴罪行的窠巢里。因此，博物学家就要戴上望远镜，日复一日地坐在那里等待着亲眼证实或者否定那种认为杜鹃确实是在地面上而非在窠里下蛋的说法。而日，即使他很幸运，能够发现杜鹃下蛋实况，这个在鸟类来说算是极大的秘密，其他一大批有争议的问题还依然存在。就像新的领土有待他去开拓，例如，杜鹃的蛋跟它占用的窠里其他鸟的蛋是否总是一样颜色？自然，科学家没有理由为了自己失去无知而哭泣。如果他们看起来似乎是精通一切的话，那也不过因为你我差不多是一无所知罢了。实际上，当他们要把一件事实的盖子揭开的时候，某种命定的无知就在等待着他们。海妖们向尤利塞斯唱的究竟是什么歌儿？——他们永远不可能知道，正像托马斯·勃朗爵士也不知道一样。

我请杜鹃来做例子以说明普通人的无知，并不是因为我有什么权威可以对这种鸟儿发发议论。不过，我曾在某个教区暂住，而那年春天从非洲飞来的杜鹃似乎全集合在那个地方，因此我也就有机会了解到我自己以及我所碰见的每一个人对于这种鸟儿的知识是如何地微不足道。但是，你我的无知并不仅限于杜鹃这一方面。它涉及到宇宙万物，从太阳、月亮一直到花卉的名字。有一天，我听见一位聪明伶俐的太太提出了这样一个问题∶新月是不是总在星期几露面？她接着又说：不知道倒好，正因为人不知道在什么时候、在天空的哪一带能看见它，新月一出现才给人带来一场惊喜。然而我想、哪怕入把月亮盈亏时间表记得再熟。看见新月出现还是不免又惊又喜，春回大地，花开花落，也莫不如此。尽管我们对一年四季草本节令了如指掌，知道樱草开花在三月四月而不在十月，不过看见一株早开花的樱草，我们还是照样地高兴。另外，我们知道苹果树先开花，后结果，可是五月一旦到来，果园里一片欢闹的花海。我们不是仍然惊为奇观吗？

倘在每年春天，把许多花卉之名重温一遍，还另有一番风味。那就像把一本差不多忘得干干净净的书再重新念一遍。蒙田说过，他的记忆力很坏，所以他随时都能拿起一本旧书，像从未读过的新书一样地念。我自己的记忆力也是漏洞百出、不听使唤。我甚至能拿起《哈姆雷特》和《匹克威克外传》，当作是初登文坛的新作家刚刚印成白纸黑字的作品来念，因为自从上回念过以后，这两部书在我脑子里的印象已经模模糊糊了。这样的记忆力，在某些场合自然叫人伤脑筋，尤其当人渴望精确的时候。不过，在这种时候，人不仅想得到娱乐，还追求着什么目的。如果只讲享受的话，记忆力坏比记忆力好究竟差到哪里去，还真是大可怀疑哩。记忆力坏的人可以一辈子不断地念普卢塔克的《英雄传》和《天方夜谭》，而永远感到新鲜。很可能，最坏的记忆力也难免粘粘连连地留下一星半点的印象，恰如一只只绵羊从篱笆洞里接连通过，总不免在那刺条上留下一丝半缕的羊毛。然而，绵羊终归逃出去了，正像伟大的作家从我们不争气的记忆中消失。所留下的东西简直微不足道。

既然读过的书我们可以忘得一干二净，那么一年十二个月以及每个月的风物，一旦时过境迁。我们同样可以轻而易举地把它们忘在脑后。在某个短暂时刻，我可以说自己对于五月就像对于乘法表那样熟悉，关于五月里的花木、开花时间乃至前后次序，我能通过考试。今天，我就敢肯定金凤花有五瓣。（难道是六瓣吗？上个礼拜我还记得清清楚楚来着。）可是，到了明年，我也许连算术也忘个干干净净;我得从头学起，以免把金凤花误认成白屈菜。那时，我像一个陌生者进人大花园，放眼四望，五色缤纷的原野再一次使我目不暇接，心迷神醉。那时，我也许要对这么一个问题拿不定注意，就是; 认为雨燕（那种简直像大号小燕子、又和蜂鸟沾点儿亲戚的黑鸟儿）从来不在窠里歇着，一到夜里就飞向高高的天空，到底是一种科学论断，还是一种无知妄说？当我知道了会唱歌的并不是雌杜鹃，而是雄杜鹃。我还要再次感到惊讶。我得重新学习，以免把剪秋罗当作野大竺葵；还要去重新发现白杨在树木生长的习惯法中究章算是早成材还是晚成材。某天。一个外国人问一位当代英国小说家，英国最重要的农作物是什么。他毫不犹豫地回答：“稞麦。”在我看来，这是一种堂而皇之派头的彻头彻尾的无知；不过，大大无知的也包括那些没有文化的人。普通人只会使用电话，却无法解释电话的工作原理。他把电话、火车、铸造排字机、飞机都看作当然之事，就像我们的祖父一代把福音书里的奇迹故事视为理所当然一样。对于这些事，他既不去怀疑，也不去了解。我们每个人似乎只对很小范围内的某几件事才真正下工夫去了解、弄清楚。大部分人把日常工作以外的一切知识统统当作花哨无用的玩意儿。然面，对于我们的无知，我们还是时时抗拒着，我们}有时振作起来，进行思索。我们随便找一个什么题目，对之思考，甚至入迷——关于死后的生命，或者关于某些据说亚里士多德也感到大惑不解的问题，例如“打喷嚏，从中午到子夜则吉，从夜晚至中午则凶，其故安在？”为求知识而陷入无知，这是人类所欣赏的最大乐事之一。归根结底，无知的极大乐趣即在于提出问题。一个人，如果失去了这种提问的乐趣，或者把它换成了教条的答案，并且以此为乐，那么，他的头脑已经开始僵化了。我们羡慕像裘伊特这样勤学好问之人，他到了六十多岁居然还能坐下来研究生理学。我们多数人不到他这么大的岁数就早已丧失了自己无知的感觉了。我们甚全像松鼠似的对自己小小的知识储存感到沾沾自喜，把与日俱增的年龄看作是培养无所不知的天然学堂。我们忘记了∶苏格拉底之所以以智慧名垂后世，并非因为他无所不知，而是因为他到了七十高龄还能明白自己仍然一无所知。 (Zhu Mingju 2007: 322-325)

=Chapter 5： Analysis of translation strategies and methods for political eassays --- A Case Study of Annual Summary of the Russian Government's Work of 2019 =
'''政论语体翻译策略及翻译方法— 以《2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告》为例'''

[[Trans_Type_EN_5]]

毛优 Mao You，Hunan Normal University，China

=Chapter 6: An analysis and comparison of the translation styles of two Chinese translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris''=
'''浅析对比《巴黎的忧郁》两个汉译本的翻译风格'''

[[Trans_Type_EN_6]]

彭瑞雪 Peng Ruixue 202120081517 法语语言文学专业, Hunan University, China

==Abstract==

从20世纪初以来，对波德莱尔这位“恶魔诗人”的作品的译介就源源不断，《巴黎的忧郁》是波德莱尔除了《恶之花》之外的另一部经典作品。亚丁译本与怀宇译本认为《巴黎的忧郁》是散文，钱春绮、邢鹏举和郭宏安则译之为散文诗。翻译立足点的不同必然会导致译本的差异。本文将选取《巴黎的忧郁》的亚丁译本和郭宏安译本，结合刘宓庆的翻译风格论，从翻译风格的角度对两个译本进行分析对比，从而对《巴黎的忧郁》的主旨和思想有进一步了解和体会，对郭宏安、亚丁两位译者的文学翻译观有进一步把握, 并对刘宓庆的翻译风格理论的适用性有进一步思考。

Since the early twentieth century, there has been a steady stream of translations of Baudelaire’s work, the ‘demon poet’, and ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is another of Baudelaire’s classics, in addition to ''Les Fleurs du mal''. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. The difference in the grounding of the translation will inevitably lead to differences in the translations. In this paper, we will select the Ya Ding’s and Guo Hong’an’s translations of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' and analyse and compare the two translations from the perspective of translation style in the light of Liu Miqing’s(刘宓庆) theory of translation style, so as to further understand and appreciate the main idea and thoughts of Le Spleen de Paris, further grasp the literary translation concepts of Guo Hong’an and Ya Ding, and further consider the applicability of Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style.

==Key Words==

Translation Styles, ''Le Spleen de Paris'', Guo Hong'an, Ya Ding
翻译风格，巴黎的忧郁，郭宏安，亚丁

==Introduction==

The chapters in ''Le Spleen de Paris'' can be as short as a few lines or as long as a dozen paragraphs, some in the form of dialogue, some narrative, and some descriptive, depicting modern life around everyday things, inner activities, philosophical reflections and urban landscapes. In this work, Baudelaire’s satire and sarcasm on the sordid, deformed reality of society are unrelentingly scathing and fierce in their attack on corrupt worldly habits. The Ya Ding’s(亚丁) and Huai Yu’s(怀宇) translations consider ''Le Spleen de Paris'' to be prose, while Qian Chunqi(钱春绮), Xing Pengju(邢鹏举) and Guo Hong’an(郭宏安) translate it as prose poems. Different views towards translation determine the differences in translation strategies and methods, which in turn lead to different translation styles. In this paper, we will select Ya Ding’s translation and Guo Hong’an’s translation and analyse and compare the translation styles of the two translations in the light of Liu Miqing’s（刘宓庆） translation style theory.

Firstly, the first part of this paper will provide a brief introduction to Liu Miqing's theory of translation style. Next, in the second part, we will analyse and compare the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations from the perspective of formal markers by selecting a number of prose or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' according to the form and content of the text, discussing the two translators' grasp of the style of the original text, Guo Hong'an and Yadin, and then be able to grasp the differences between the translation styles of the two translations. Finally, in the third part, we start from the perspective of the non-formal markers and analyse the translators' approach and techniques in handling the translation, as well as the ideological and emotional aspects of the translation, in order to grasp the translation styles of the two translations in general. Thereby, we expect to gain a further appreciation of the main idea and thought of Melancholy in Paris, a better understanding of Ya Ding's and Guo Hong'an's views on literary translation, and further reflection on the applicability of Liu Miqing's theory of translation style.

==Liu Miqing’s theory of translation style==

Literary style often gives the impression of being elusive and difficult to grasp, but in Liu Miqing’s view, literary style is both graspable and translatable, and the key to stylistic translation lies in the adaptability of the style of the original work. A grasp of the style of the original is the groundwork for a stylistic translation, “only when the translator analyses the structure of the original text and combines it with the aesthetic activity of a vague collection of non-formal markers can the style of the text become visible, thus making the meaning of style knowable” (Liu Miqing 2005:240)#. In order to comprehend the style of the original text, the translator must grasp the system of stylistic markers, which includes the Form Markers and the Non-Formal Markers. The Formal markers are intuitive and capture style from a linguistic perspective, including six types of markers: Phonological Markers, Register Markers, Lexical Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers, Lexical Markers, Textual Markers and Markers of Figures of Speech. Non-formal markers are non-intuitive and capture style from an aesthetic point of view, which means that in the process of translation the translator also has to take into account “elements that are imaginative or psychological and affective” (Liu 2005:249)#. The non-formal marker style symbol system consists of three aspects: the writer’s choice and treatment of the subject matter, the inner thoughts and feelings of the work and the writer’s spirituality, and the integration of the recipient’s vision.

Liu Miqing states that there are three means of translation of style. The first is Corresponding, which is a correspondence to the original language’s style marker system, namely, to grasp the formal and non-formal markers of the original language and imitate it. The second is Recasting, which is the re-creation of style. This re-creation is usually based on four main grounds: the lack of a style marker system in the target language corresponding to the original; the fact that the style of the target language imitating and copying the original is hardly acceptable to contemporary readers as the chronology changes; the need to make communicative function and utility; and the inevitability of cultural differences. Thirdly, Decoloring or Generalizing, where a linguistic and cultural barrier that cannot be crossed compels the abandonment or partial abandonment of stylistic meaning in order to ensure the communicative function of the language.

In addition, Liu Miqing proposes five principles of style translation: the principle of adaptability, the principle of recipient, the principle of hierarchy, the principle of synthesis and the principle of the limits of translatability. The principle of adaptability means that the aim is to adapt to the style of the original language, “the translator must carefully analyse the formal and non-formal markers of the original text, pay attention to the degree of adaptation of the correspondence in a comparative bilingual study, and try to find the appropriate bilingual counterpart ‘value’” (Liu 2005:261)#. The principle of synthesis refers to the fact that style is a multi-layered synthesis, and that translations will reflect a variety of stylistic translation devices at the same time.

==Form Markers==

According to the form and content of the chapters, we have selected two proses or prose poems from ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a foundation for a specific analysis and comparison of the translation styles of the two texts. L’Étranger, a novel and unusual form for poetry or prose, consists of 15 lines and is a dialogue based on the question “Who do you love most?” Chacun sa chimère, a highly symbolic piece of six short paragraphs, in which Baudelaire poignantly captures the existential and spiritual plight of the 19th century in general.

===Register Markers===

“Register (or domain of use) refers to the range of words use, and words circulating in a particular range of use often have common features” (Liu 2005:242)#. From a genre point of view, ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is a literary work in which the language should belong to the written language. However, the two translators differ in their judgement on this point of written language for two reasons. On the one hand, some of the texts are in the form of dialogues, and since they are printed texts, it is logical to choose to translate them into written language, but as they are dialogues, it is also reasonable to decide to translate them into spoken language. On the other hand, the two translators position the work differently in terms of genre, with Guo Hong’an considering the book to be a collection of prose poems and Ya Ding considering it to be a collection of prose. The different genres naturally have different registers; prose poetry is more poetic than prose, and poetic means that the use of words is relatively more concise and ‘elegant’; in prose the use of words is relatively freer and more ‘vulgar’. It should be noted that the terms ‘elegant’ and ‘vulgar’ here refer to the dignity and simplicity of the diction, respectively. The former means that the diction is closer to the written word, while the later means that the diction is closer to the spoken word. There is a clear difference between Guo Hong’an’s translation and Ya Ding’s translation in terms of the “elegance” and “vulgarity” of the words used, which we will then illustrate with examples.

The title ''L’Étranger'' is translated by Guo Hong’an as “异乡人” and by Aden as “陌生人”. In English, there is no distinguishing between these two words, both meaning “stranger”, but in Chinese they are not the same. The term “异乡人” has a long history, and has been used in ancient Chinese poetry, for example in the poem The night of the New Year’s Eve (《岁除夜有怀（一题作除夜）》) by the Tang poet Meng Haoran(孟浩然), in which he says, “乱山残雪夜，孤烛异乡人”, and in Xu Hun(许浑)’s Inscription of the Monastery of the Huqiu Temple in Suzhou (《题苏州虎丘寺僧院》), in which he says, “暂引寒泉濯远尘，此生多是异乡人”, and in Wei Zhuang(韦庄)’s Farewell to Xucai Li on the River (《江上别李秀才》), he says, “莫向尊前惜沈醉，与君俱是异乡人”. However, in ancient Chinese, the use of“陌生人” is less common and occurs mainly in more secular and colloquial works, such as in the Ming dynasty novel The Case of Pao Gong (《包公案》), in which there is “王氏对陌生人，未知好歹”, and in the Qing dynasty novel The Mirror and the Flower (《镜花缘》), in which there is “连我们自己的丫鬟都认不清楚；到了陌生人眼里那里还看得出”. In contrast, the former is closer to the written word, more poetic and “elegant”, while the latter is closer to the spoken word and more “vulgar”.

'''Eg. (a)'''

Original text： « Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme énigmatique, dis ? ton père, ta mère, ta sœur ou ton frère ?
Guo’s translation：“你最爱谁，谜一样的人，你说？父亲，母亲，姐妹，还是兄弟?”
Ya’s translation：——喂！你这位不可猜测的人，你说说你最爱谁呢？你父亲还是你母亲？姐妹还是兄弟？

Original text： –Je n’ai ni père, ni mère, ni sœur, ni frère.
Guo’s translation：“我没有父亲，没有母亲，没有姐妹，没有兄弟。”
Ya’s translation：——哦……我没有父亲也没有母亲，没有姐妹也没有兄弟。

Original text： –Vous vous servez là d’une parole dont le sens m’est resté jusqu’à ce jour inconnu.
Guo’s translation：“您用了一个词，我至今还不知道它的含义。”
Ya’s translation：——这……您说出了一个我至今还一无所知的词儿。

Original text：– Je le hais comme vous haïssez Dieu.
Guo’s translation：“我恨它，一如您恨上帝。”
Ya’s translation：——我恨它，就像您恨上帝一样。

Original text：–Eh ! qu’aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire étranger ?
Guo’s translation：“唉！那你爱谁，不寻常的异乡人？”
Ya’s translation：——啊呀！你究竟爱什么呀？你这不同寻常的陌生人！

This text is rather distinctive because it is both a text and a dialogue, a dialogue recorded in text. In this regard, the two translations reflect different styles. Guo’s translation is more dignified, more in keeping with the conventions of written expression, and more faithful to the form and content of the original. Ya Ding, on the other hand, prefaces the first three sentences with intonation words such as “喂！”, “哦……”, “这……”. The use of intonation reflects the state of the speaker, demonstrating the questioner’s persistence and the respondent’s hesitancy. In the fourth sentence, for the word “comme”, Guo Hong’an translates it as “一如”, while Aden chooses “就像……一样”. The former is obviously more commonly used in printed language, while the latter is often used in speech. In the fifth sentence, Aden translates “Eh!” as “啊呀!”, translates “donc” as “究竟” and adds the colloquial “你这” in his translation of “extraordinaire étranger”. In contrast, the translations of Guo “唉” and“那” are more written and less emphatic. It is obvious that the Ya Ding’s translation is more colloquial, closer to the spoken word, and plainer and more straightforward.

===Lexical Markers===

Lexical markers indicate the author’s idiolect (Liu 2005:243)#. First, we need to distinguish between lexical markers and register markers. On the surface, these two perspectives seem similar, as they both relate to “words”. But in fact “idiolect” and “register” are not the same. The former is personal and refers mainly to one's habits of using words, for example, to use words more easily or more elegantly, to use certain adjectives or adverbs, or to use participles. The latter, however, is “social in a different way” (Liu 2005:243)#. The difference between Guo Hong’an’s more “elegant” and Aden’s more “vulgar” diction, as we have just mentioned, is in fact based on the positioning of the text. In a general sense, what kind of words should be used in written language? What kind of words should be used in oral language? They are not based on subjective conventions, but on the rules of the language, the conventions of social usage, and the use of words in a broader sense. But in addition, it is important to note that “idiolect is also highly related to the style and subject matter of the work (Liu 2005:245)#”, and on this level, lexical markers and register markers are again connected. For example, Guo Hong’an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, while Ya Ding translates it as a prose text, and thus there is a difference in the diction of the two translators. In conclusion, after analysing the register markers, through the lexical marker analysis and comparing Guo Hong’an’s and Ya Ding’s translations, we can know the diction habits of the two translators and thus further understand their respective translation styles and the differences between them.

'''Eg. (b)'''

Original text：Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes, et je lui demandai où ils allaient ainsi.

Guo’s translation：我问其中一个人，他们这是往哪里去。

Ya’s translation：我向其中一个人询问，他们这样匆忙是向哪里去。

The first half of the original French sentence “Je questionnai l’un de ces hommes” is a subject-predicate object construction, and both Guo’s translation and Ya’s translation are verb-predicate statements, but Ya’s translation changes the structure by placing the object between the subject and the predicate, as “向其中一个人”. Guo simply translates “ainsi” as “这”, while Ya adds an adverb and tranlates it as “这样匆忙” , which makes the picture of the text more concrete.

Original text：Il me répondit qu’il n’en savait rien, ni lui, ni les autres ;

Guo’s translation：他回答我说，他一无所知，他，别人，都一无所知；

Ya’s translation：他回答我说，他也一无所知；不但他，别人也不知道。

In this sentence, for “il n’en savait rien”, Guo translates it straightforwardly as “他一无所知”, while Yah adds the adverb “也”: “他也一无所知”. In the original French, “ni lui, ni les autres” is a negative parallelism, which Guo translates as a parallelism “他，别人”, while Ya adds a correlative to indicate a progressive relationship “不但……也……”.

Original text：Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d’aucun désespoir ; sous la coupole spleenétique du ciel, les pieds plongés dans la poussière d’un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel, ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours.

Guo’s translation：这些疲惫而严肃的面孔没有表现出任何的绝望；在这阴郁的苍穹下，他们的脚陷入和天空一样愁惨的大地的尘土中，带着注定要永远希望的人的无可如何的神情，走着。

Ya’s translation：在这些疲惫而严肃的面孔上，没有一张表现出绝望的神情。在这阴郁的苍穹下，大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中，脸上呈现着无可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的神情。

The first third of the original French sentence “Tous ces visages fatigués et sérieux ne témoignaient d'aucun désespoir" is a common subject-verb-object construction, with the subject and object being "visages, témoignaient, désespoir". Guo's translation is similar, with "faces, expressions, despair" and he translates "tous...ne" as "没有". The Ya’s translation, however, splits the entire sentence in two, changing the sentence type to a gerund followed by a subject-verb-object, translating "tous...ne" as "没有一张".

In the second third of the sentence, Ya Dang's translation is clearly more fragmented and has more clauses than Guo's, showing the loose structure of prose sentences, while Guo's translation has more whole sentences and a more compact sentence structure, using more determiners before nouns. For example, for "les pieds plongés dans la poussière d'un sol aussi désolé que ce ciel", Guo adds two definite articles before "尘土", Guo adds the definite article "和天空一样惨淡的" and "大地的". For "ils cheminaient avec la physionomie résignée de ceux qui sont condamnés à espérer toujours", Guo translates the noun “神情” which is preceded by three "的", "带着注定要永远希望的" modifies "人", "带着注定要永远希望的人的" and "无可如何的" modifying “神情”; and "cheminaient" is singled out and placed at the end of the sentence, translated as "走着". This is a very subtle way of structuring the sentence. "The word "走" is the central action of the sentence, and all the other components are describing the environment and scene of this "走". The "走着，" alone at the end not only serves to reinforce the central content of the sentence, but also reinforces the atmosphere of the setting it presents. In a miserable, grey and heavy atmosphere, the people do nothing else but walk, however, this monotonous and repetitive action does not cause them to feel helpless and irritated, instead they all look with an eternal hope. The two characters “走着” alone give the reader a great sense of contrast and impact. The Ya’s translation, however, disrupts the order of the entire sentence and cuts it into many small phrases, putting "cheminaient" ahead-- "大地也像天空一样令人忧伤，他们行走着，脚步陷入尘土中". There are two "的" before "神情", but he separates the two determiners with a comma, "可奈何的，被注定要永远地希望下去的".

Original text：Et le cortège passa à côté de moi et s’enfonça dans l’atmosphère de l’horizon, à l’endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain.

Guo’s translation：行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入天际，地球圆形的表面遮住了人们好奇的目光。

Ya’s translation：旅行者的队伍从我身边走过，没入遥远的天际。由于行星圆形的表面，人类好奇的目光消失在那里。

For "s'enfonça dans l'atmosphère de l'horizon", Guo translates it as "没入天际" and in the Ya’s translation the word “遥远的” is used to describe the sky “天际”. Guo Hong'an divides a whole sentence in the original French into three sub-clauses, while Ya Ding divides a whole sentence into two. For the translation of “à l'endroit où la surface arrondie de la planète se dérobe à la curiosité du regard humain”, Ya Ding uses a logical correlate “由于” to indicate the cause, and the subject and predicate of sentence are respectively “好奇的目光” and “消失”; in Guo's translation, the causal relationship is not emphasized, and the subject and predicate being “表面” “遮住” “好奇的目光”. The similarity between the two translators is the conversion of the word “la curiosité”, which is translated word-for-word as “目光的好奇”. Both translators switch the modifier and the central phrase and translate it as “好奇的目光”. The difference, though, is that Guo uses it as an object and Yah brings this element to the front of the sentence as the subject.

Original text：Et pendant quelques instants je m’obstinai à vouloir comprendre ce mystère ; mais bientôt l’irrésistible Indifférence s’abattit sur moi, et j’en fus plus lourdement accablé qu’ils ne l’étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères.

Guo’s translation：有一段时间我一直想理解这奥秘：可是很快不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，我被沉重地压倒了，那些背着过重的怪兽的人也没有这样。

Ya’s translation：好长时间，我一直力图解开这个谜；可是不久，不可抗拒的冷漠控制了我，于是，我也显得比被怪兽压迫的人们更加疲劳了。

Similarly, Ya Ding uses four commas and a semicolon in this sentence to loosen up the sentence structure. For example, the phrase "pendant quelques instants" "mais bientôt" is translated as "好长时间，""可是不久，". And the Ya Ding the conjunction "于是" to the sentence, indicating the continuation of the context. In contrast, Guo's translation of the phrase is longer and more compact. In the translation of "ils ne l'étaient eux-mêmes par leurs écrasantes Chimères", Guo's translation remains closer to the subject-verb-object order of the original sentence, with the subject “背着怪兽的人”. There is still, on the other hand, is still a change of subject in the Ya Ding’s translation, using "我" as the subject. Guo translates "j'en fus plus lourdement accablé" as "被沉重地压倒", while the Asian translation uses "more fatigued ". Obviously, the former passive form is more in line with the heavy and depressing atmosphere of the original, as the monster in people is already heavy, and the indifference that controls “我” is even heavier and more suffocating than the monster, while the power and emotion conveyed by the word "疲劳" are slightly inadequate.

As a result, we can recognise the difference in translation style between Guo Hong'an and Aden by analysing their idiolect. Guo Hong'an's diction is simpler and more concise, conveying a more straightforward, serious and sharp emotional atmosphere. He tends to use longer endocentric phrases, with several "的" in a single clause; he uses fewer conjunctions and associative words, and does not add adjectives that are not found in the original; as a result, the clauses in Guo's translation are longer, and the whole sentence is more compact and closer to the structure of the original. In contrast, Ya Ding's diction is more varied. He prefers to use adjectives in order to express in an obvious way the mood and atmosphere hidden beneath the original text; he tends to use short, endocentric phrases and does not like to add too many modifiers before a central noun; he tends to use linking, logical correlatives to show the logical relationships hidden beneath the sentences, according to his own understanding; thus the sentences in Ya's translation are more dispersed and more lyrical, with a softer tone and atmosphere than in Guo's translation which conveys more strong and heavy emotions.

==Non-formal Markers==

The register markers and the lexical markers which belong to the category of formal markers are intuitive style symbols. But with these visual markers alone, it is not possible to get as comprehensive a picture as possible of the overall translation style of a work of translation. Therefore, when analysing translation style, it is necessary to consider not only formal markers but also non-formal markers. "Although style is not a ‘nebulous’ existence, it does have so-called 'non-formal elements' such as charm, style, momentum, mood, etc., which we call the non-formal signs of style " (Liu 2005:249)#.

Non-formal markers are holistic, open, compatible and unique. The holistic nature means that the "non-formal marker style symbol system does not rely on the formal markers itself (see the six types of formal markers above), but on the general linguistic structure and features of the aesthetic object (textual patterns and features), the context, the communicative function of the work (intended to describe the scene, intended to stimulate emotion, intended to expound, etc.) to construct the unstable structure of aesthetic object, which evoke the psychological factors of image, experience and perception in the aesthetic consciousness of the aesthetic subject (the recipient, i.e. the reader). perception) , in order to adapt to the unstable structure of the aesthetic object, forming an ambiguous aesthetic activity"(Liu 2005:250)#. In ordinary parlance, the holistic is the overall feeling that the reader has about the text. This feeling is ambiguous, integrated and aesthetic. The openness refers to the openness of the aesthetic object, and the non-formal mark of style "fundamentally dependent on imagination and creativity". Aesthetic criticism of the work itself is therefore flexible and unrestricted, and readers in different times and spaces can have their own interpretations of the same literary work. Compatibility refers to the fact that stylistic symbols carry a variety of information, not a single one; "the style of a great work of art is often a combination of rigidity and softness, light and darkness, inhibition and ebb and flow" (Liu 2005:250)#. Uniqueness means that identical non-formal symbol systems do not exist; each symbol and each system has its own characteristics.

According to Liu Miqing, we can appreciate the specific significance of the non-formal symbolic system of style from four perspectives: the writer's choice of subject matter, his treatment and technique, the inner thoughts and emotions of the work, the writer's spirituality and the recipient factor. In the same way, when we apply this way of thinking to the analysis of translations, turning the "writer" into the "translator" and further analysing the translation style from two perspectives: the translator's approach and technique, and the inner thoughts and emotions of the work. In this way, the translation style can be analysed and interpreted in a more systematic and comprehensive way.

Both translators, Guo Hong'an and Ya Ding, chose the book ''Le Spleen de Paris'', but the former considered it a collection of prose poems while the latter considered it a collection of essays, so the two translators adopted different approaches and techniques to the language and text in the process of translation. From the above analysis of the register markers and lexical markers of the two translations, which belong to the category of symbolist literature, we can see that the similarity between the two translations is that they both capture the most important feature of the original text - its symbolic meanings. The difference lies in the fact that Guo Hong'an's diction is closer to the Chinese elegant language and more concise, leaving more room for the reader's imagination. His translation has fewer sub-clauses, a more compact sentence structure and the punctuation is more similar to that of the original French. The translator's personal creation is less reflected in the translation and the translator is more invisible. In contrast, Ya Ding's idiolect is more colloquial and tends to use inflections, adjectives, correlatives, etc. that express emotion and logic. He often brings out the emotions and logic hidden in the original text in the translation, giving the text a more graphic feel, which facilitates the reader's understanding of the emotional content of the original text, but at the same time reduces the reader's scope for imagination. His translations contain many short sentences with a loose sentence structure, which is closer to the form of a prose text. Both in terms of form and content, we can see in the translation that Ya Ding as a translator has played a more creative role.

The content of both translations is based on the original text and is therefore largely the same. In terms of the form of the translation, such as phrase structure, sentence structure, paragraph structure, etc., the two translations differ considerably. As a result of this difference in form, there is also a division in the ideas and emotions conveyed by the two translations. In the analysis of the text Chacun a sa chimère above, we have been able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the two translations from a general perspective. The Guo's translation is rawer and low-emotion in its depiction of the setting and characters, and the oppressive and dreary atmosphere is well shaped by the compact sentence structure and condensed diction. The overall feeling of the Ya Ding's translation is softer. Although the scene is also one of a man being oppressed by a monster, there is a sense of compassion and sadness in the words of the Ya Ding's translation, and his words are emotional, whereas the words in Guo's translation are clearly more emotionless.

==Conclusion==

The overall language of ''Le Spleen de Paris'' is sharp, raw and pitiless, and the atmosphere created is heavy, grey and depressing. Through his depiction of the urban environment and his portrayal of urban characters, Baudelaire satirises and criticises nineteenth-century capitalist society in a direct or indirect way. In such a money-over-money society, everyone pursues pleasure and utilitarianism. The lower classes, alienated by the big machine and mass production, lived a miserable life, exploited by the big capitalists and financiers, deprived of the freedom they were entitled to as human beings, losing their individuality and becoming numb, losing their sense of subjectivity and no longer being able to control their own lives. And the "awakened men" like Baudelaire, the artists and literary scholars, who saw the ills of society but were unable to change them, were forced to submit to the filthy capital. As a result, they are miserable. Like ''Les Fleurs du mal'', ''Le Spleen de Paris'' was born in this context.

Guo Hong'an translates ''Le Spleen de Paris'' as a prose poem, so his sentence construction is more compact; Adam treats it as prose, so his sentence construction is looser. Combined with the different diction habits of the two authors, Guo's more elegant diction and Adam's more colloquial diction, a clear difference in style emerges between the two translations. The style of Guo's translation is more sombre, unfeeling and sharp, while that of Adam's is relatively softer, emotive and more human.

Liu Miqing's theory of translation style provides an effective and relatively comprehensive way of thinking and perspective for analysing the style of a text from different perspectives, such as content and form, visible and invisible, internal and external, etc. This is undoubtedly very valuable for comparing and analysing the translation styles of the two translations. However, we can see that some of the definitions in this theory are very vague or too detailed, for example, the difference between "lexical symbols" and "register symbols" is not very big, both are related to the use of words, but Liu Miqing insists on dividing them into two kinds of symbols, which makes it impossible to clearly determine the types of formal symbols when using the theory for analysis. This leads to the analysis of different texts that always feels like it is saying the same thing. It is clear that the analysis is done from two different perspectives of words and phrases, but in reality, the analysis yields roughly the same result.

==References==

[1] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 异乡人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E5%BC%82%E4%B9%A1%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[2] 北京大学中国语言学研究中心 Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University. 陌生人（古代汉语）［DB/OL］. http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/search?q=%E9%99%8C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA&start=0&num=50&index=FullIndex&outputFormat=HTML&encoding=UTF-8&maxLeftLength=30&maxRightLength=30&orderStyle=score&LastQuery=&dir=gudai&scopestr=, [2021-11-17]

[3] 刘宓庆 Liu Mingqing. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京 Beijing: 中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 2005.

[4] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁[M]. 郭宏安 Guo Hong'an, 北京 Beijing: 商务印书馆 The Commercial Press, 2018.

[5] 波德莱尔 Baudelaire. 巴黎的忧郁[M]. 亚丁 Ya Ding, 北京 Beijing: 生活·读书·新知三联书店 Sanlian Bookstore, 2004.

=A Study of Lu Xun’s Short Stories Translation from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence: Taking Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang’s English Verison of ''Kong I-Chi'' as a Case Study=
功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例

[[Trans_Type_EN_7]]

秦建安 QinJianna, Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, chief commander of China's modern cultural revolution, is not only a great thinker and political commentator but the founder of modern Chinese literature. Kong I-Chi is one of the masterpieces of Lu Xun's novels. Although the total number of characters is less than 3,000 words, Lu Xun exposes the nature of feudal ethics and its negative influence through his character portrayal, which is loved by many readers home and aboard. The main reason why this thesis takes Yan Xianyi and his wife Gladys Yang’s translation as a research object is that it is not only faithful to the original text, but so as close as possible to the original text in terms of syntactic structure and wording. Therefore, his translations once became the authoritative version of Lu Xun's novels. From the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory, this thesis conducts translation research on the English translation of the famous writer Yang Xianyi, analyzing whether the translation is functionally equivalent to the original text and construe the English translation of prose from the lexical, syntactic, and semantic level to try to explore the translation strategies, styles and methods of Kong I-Chi which aims to explain the functional equivalents in Lu Xun's short novel translation.

===Key Words===
Functional Equivalence Theory; Lu Xun; Kong I-Chi;translation method

===摘要===
鲁迅，作为中国近代文化大革命的总指挥，不仅是伟大的思想家和政治评论家，还是中国现代文学的奠基人。孔乙己是鲁迅小说的代表作之一。虽然总字数不足3000字，但鲁迅通过其人物刻画，揭露了封建伦理的本质及其负面影响，深受海内外读者的喜爱。本论文以杨宪益夫妇的译文为研究对象的主要原因是它不仅忠实于原文，而且在句法结构和措辞上尽可能接近原文。因此，他的译本一度成为鲁迅小说的权威版本。本论文从奈达的功能对等理论出发，对著名作家杨宪益的英译本进行翻译研究，分析译文是否与原文功能对等，从词汇、句法、语义层面试图探讨孔乙己的翻译策略、风格和方法，旨在解释鲁迅短篇小说翻译中的功能对等。

===关键词===
功能对等，鲁迅，孔乙己，翻译方法

===Title===
A Study of Lu Xun’s Short Stories Translation from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence: Taking Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang’s English Verison of ''Kong I-Chi'' as a Case Study

===Introduction===
This chapter will be expanded with respect to the research background, its significance and the methodology. The literature review will also be included which describes the previous studies on the Functional Equivalence Theory and previous translation versions of ''Kong I-Chi''.

'''Research Background and Significance'''

As the most famous writer in modern China, Lu Xun has a decisive bearing on the modern history of Chinese literature. Lu Xun settled in a period of transformation in Chinese literature. His short stories are different from modern short stories in terms of text and expression. ''Kong I-Chi'' was written in 1918 when there was a turmoil in China. At that time, although the imperial examination system had been abolished, the education system had not changed, and many scholars had not shaken off the shackles of feudal tenets.

''Kong I-Chi'' enjoys high reputation at home and abroad and has been translated into English, Japanese, French, Russian and other languages. Compared with other language versions, the English versions enjoy a wider spread and have deeper influence. In 1954, the couple Yang and Dai translated it into English and published Selected Stories of Lu Xun in which ''Kong I-Chi'' was included. Yang Xianyi and his wife Gladys Yang are great translator beyond all doubt. They are knowledgeable and familiar with Chinese and Western cultures also have devoted their life to translating excellent Chinese and Western literary works. Through their translation, we can better master the author's own novel intentions.

'''Methodology'''

In recent years, the translation of traditional Chinese literary works was attached great significance by both Chinese and foreign scholars. As an important part of ancient Chinese culture, though, it is a common genre in Chinese and foreign literature, the short novels cannot be neglected. For translators, how to deal with the modern and balance Chinese and Western cultural differences has become a salient problem. It is not only necessary to understand the characteristics of modern Chinese literature, but also to be very familiar with Chinese and Western cultures for the translator. Functional Equivalence Theory is put forward by American linguists Eugene Nida. According to him, two different languages represent two different cultures which will never be the same, but translation is a kind of communication between the two cultures and translators should try their best to achieve functional equivalence between the two languages rather than seek for rigid correspondence when making translation, which can accurately reproduce the source culture in the target language and eliminate cultural differences. It puts forward a new attitude to treat different languages and cultures, promoting language communication and mutual understandings among people. Thus, taking Nida’s theory as guidance, this research is meaningful not only for translation studies, but also for cultural exchanges.

'''Literature Review'''

As one of Nida’s major contribution to contemporary translation studies, Functional Equivalence Theory has brought about heated discussion among scholars at home and abroad since its birth. Many momentous works of Nida also have been translated and introduced into China, such as Nida on Translation edited and translated by Tan Zaixi (1999) and Language and Translation translated by Cai Yi (1985) which of them aroused great repercussions in Chinese translation field. As the prototypical member of Functional Equivalence Theory, receptor’s response theory draws scholars’ attention. Zhang Xiujuan (2015) points out that “receptor’s response theory breaks the tradition of Chinese translation that translators pay much attention to the text but may ignore the response of readers, and provides a new perspective for Chinese scholars to make studies on translation theories”.

Kong I-Chi, as the most typical character in Lu Xun's novels in the teaching textbooks of Chinese junior high school students, has left an indelible impression in the hearts of Chinese people. The most recognized translators of ''Kong I-Chi'' include Yang and Dai, Lyle William and Edgar Snow. The translation of Lu Xun's novels during the period of Yang and Dai reach its heyday. For a long time, domestic and foreign publishing houses have published works translated by the couple. Since Edgar Snow lived in the same age as Lu Xun, his translation is closer to Lu Xun's life background. It wasn't until 1990 that the American scholar William Lyell's new American translation was published, and the new stage of the English translation of Lu Xun's novels began. The British English version translated by Yang and Dai is elegant and idiomatic, giving readers the good impression of pure British English.

=== Theoretical Framework: Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory ===
==== Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory ====
===== The Original of Functional Equivalence Theory =====

Nida's main academic activities unfold around the translation of the Bible. In the process of "Bible" translation, Nida started from reality and developed a set of his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. In 1964, Nida (1964) put forward “dynamic equivalence” in ''Toward a Science of Translating'', and gave it specific definition in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969). In the mid-1980s, “dynamic equivalence” was replaced by “functional equivalence” to avoid misunderstandings on the term “dynamic”, which was the origin of Functional Equivalence Theory.

=====The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory =====

The most important and the most intractable part in Functional Equivalence Theory is the disposal of message. The theory requires that the message in receptor’s language must be consistent with the source language. In such a translation, translators should strive to “reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original” (Nida 1964:159). Later he successfully applied the research results of modern linguistics to translation theory which also reciprocally pushed his theory forward. There are three stages in the development of Functional Equivalence Theory.

The first stage is that starting from the essence of language; he used semantic theory to make an objective and accurate analysis of the referent and associative meaning of words. In Nida's point of view, various language structures have great similarities, and the deep structure is far more common than the surface structure. Therefore, the translation of the deep structure between languages can ensure the fidelity of the translation to the greatest extent. At the same time, the surface structure of the translation is freely expressed through the deep structure conversion which can ensue smoothness of the translation as much as possible. The faithful and fluent translation presupposes conditions for the equivalence of receptor’s response, which makes it possible to realize functional equivalence.

The second stage is that the theory was prone to lay its foundation on information theory. Nida held the view that translation is the activity of converting information expressed in one language into information in another language, which is, converting information of one code into information of another code. The translation plays a communicative role in transmitting information. Only when the target reader obtains the same amount of information as the original reader can the relationship between the target language recipient and the target language information be basically the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original source information. Nida noticed that there is a receptive gap between the original reader and target reader especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language families and different cultures. Thus, in order to improve the amount of the receptor’s information as much as the original reader’s, Nida emphasizes the translator can moderately change the form of the original text to provide a better understanding for receptors.

On third stage, Nida tended to embellish his theory from the perspective of social semiotics. Nida insisted that the translation means translation meaning, and semiotics is the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. In the book "''Language, Culture, and Translation''", Nida pointed out that social semiotics studies all codes and codes of human society, and its focus is on the most comprehensive and complex symbol system used by mankind-Language. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, no translation method is as comprehensive as the social semiotic translation method.

Nida also recognized that there would never be complete equivalence and it was just a quaesitum. With further development of Functional Equivalence Theory, he thought that it has different degrees of adequacy and on that basis he put forward two levels of functional equivalence — the maximal level and the minimal level of equivalence. The former refers to “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did” (Nida 1993:118), but this is just an ideal state which cannot be achieved especially when there are huge cultural and aesthetic differences between the two languages. While the latter means “the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it” (Nida 1993: 118), and translation below this level can never be accepted. According to Nida, if a translation is between these two levels, it can be regarded as a good one.

==== Basics of Functional Equivalence Theory ====
=====Receptor’s Response =====

In recent years, translation researchers have paid more and more attention to the study of literary translation from the perspective of receptor’s responce. When translators are working on translation, they are increasingly unable to ignore the reader's feedback on the translation. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, translation theorist Nida said that only when the reader accepts the translation can the translation be truly completed. Therefore, when translating, the translator cannot ignore the acceptability of the translation. The translator builds a bridge between the original author and the reader of the target language through translation, and it is the translation that can clearly reflect this bridge role.

Receptor’s Response Theory draws attention to the reader and the reading process, rather than the author or the text. Pat Mora and James Welch define it as: "The theory emphasizes the importance of the reader's role in text understanding." The same description also appears in many of Nida’s works in which the importance of “receptor’s response” is emphasized repeatedly.

There are five corn concepts in Receptor’s Response Theory. The first comes to the gap and blanks which was pointed out by the German literary theorist Wolfgang Iser. He said that readers cannot get completely accurate information from the text, and those uncertain information need to be filled in by the reader himself. Such uncertainty occupies another very important position in this theory. This concept includes those vague factors, such as gaps and blanks. This kind of uncertainty encourages readers to add their own ideas when reading, so there is usually more than one understanding of a literal work. The third point is implicit reader also proposed by Isel, as opposed to the actual reader, which refers to the intended reader set by the writer himself who can concretize the text. Isel points out that the implicit reader is not the actual reader, but a reader that the author expects to design in the creative process, that is, the implicit recipient. It is a certain character that the artist conceives and pre-sets based on his experience or hobbies. The forth part is the identity theme. In other words, the work itself has no fixed objective meaning; only when the reader reshapes the work out of his own identity theme and the reader replicates his own fantasies during the reading process, the work can be given meaning. The last point is the interpretative group which was put forward by Stanley Fish. It refers to people who share the same interpretation strategy as we have. In a known context or reader group, the interpretation of the work meaning is the product from the group.

===== Principles for Producing Functional Equivalence =====

To achieve the closest natural equivalence between the source language and target language, Nida put forward six principles as the guidance of different kinds and degrees of adjustments:

1. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text makes receptors misunderstand the designative meaning, changes need to be made in the translated text, or a footnote should be added for further explanation if literal translation is still be selected.

2. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text doesn’t make sense, changes should be made in the translated text unless the source text is aim to be obscure. In this situation the obscurity can be reserved and be further explained by adding a footnote.

3. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text is so semantically and syntactically difficult that average readers may give up the attempt to understand it, changes should be made in the translated text and the nature of the changes needs to be indicated in the introduction or footnote.

4. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text causes significant misconceptions on the associative meanings of the source text or huge loss in the appreciation for the stylistic values of the source text, changes should be made to reflect the associative meanings of the source text.

5. The way that a translation is to be used (such as a drama to be read or acted on the stage) is of great significance to the extent to which changes are to be made.

6. A source text that must be translated together with accompanying codes (such as songs and operas) generally requires numerous adjustments in all aspects, including phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse. (Nida 1993: 125-128).

=== Introduction to Lu Xun and ''Kong I-Ch''i ===
==== Lu Xun and the values of ''Kong I-Chi'' ====

To read and translate Kong I-Chi, you must first understand its author-Lu Xun.

Lu Xun is a great writer. Mentioning classical literary works, no matter what innovative methods are adopted, whether realistic, romantic, or magical, the content should be close to life, reflect the reality of times and speak for the people. In terms of form, literary works should conform to the inherent rules of literary creation-forming a unique artistic style and achieving the perfect unity of truth, goodness, and beauty. Lu Xun's works fully meet the above requirements.
Lu Xun is also a famous thinker. Indeed, Lu Xun did not specifically study thinking or modes of thinking, nor did he have advanced theoretical monographs, but he, like thinkers in ancient and modern times, both at home and abroad, used suspicion and criticism as spiritual swords to explore truth and reveal. He held the view that it was his duty to awaken the sleeping souls of the Chinese people with literary works of various genres. The depth and breadth of his thinking is even higher than that of some contemporary thinkers. This is well reflected in his work Kong I-Chi.

Lu Xun, who is a revolutionary, has a precious characteristic, that is, the purity of his revolutionary original intention. Lu Xun leaned towards socialism under the white horror of the low ebb of the Chinese revolution. What's more commendable is that as a sober realist, Lu Xun never conceives any romantic illusions about the revolution. No matter what difficulties the revolution encounters, Lu Xun always has an optimistic belief in the prospects of the revolution.

From a general perspective, Lunatic's Diary is more macro and image specific than Kong I-Chi, while Kong I-Chi starts from the micro level, depicting the poor people at the bottom of society who was bullied and oppressed and lost their dignity as human beings. In addition, there are many opinions in the critics. For example, Mr. Lu Xun's Kong I-Chi was written to criticize the feudal imperial examination system, and some people think that it was sent out to criticize the “dark” old society. The famous critic Lin Zhihao believes that this novel is not only to assail at the corruption of the feudal imperial examination system, but also to reveal the persecution of people’s spiritual and ideology by the feudal education system in the dark old society. The social reality was that most scholars had been ruthlessly “eaten” up by the environment. When the shackles of thinking have been broken, we can dig into the deep meaning under the surface of Kong I-Chi, that is, the process of literati's loss of personality and the process of redemption under the background of the dark society of feudalism. Although the tragedy is redemptive, the process is also accompanied by a fall.

==== Study on the Translation of ''Kong I-Chi'' ====

''Kong I-Chi'' is a masterpiece of Lu Xun. The novel was created in the winter of 1918, published in the sixth volume of "''Italic text''New Youth" in April 1919. (刘家鸣1992: 15). ''Kong I-Chi'' is Lu Xun's most satisfying work (孙伏园等2000: 58), and it is also one of Lu Xun's novels that English translators are vying to translate resulting in an amount of English translation.

So far, there are eight translations of ''Kong I-Chi'': 1)A British man E.H.F.Mills translated ''Con Y Ki'' from Jing Yinyu's French translation (Mills 1930: 42-50), included in ''The Tragedy of Ah Q and Other Contemporary Chinese Short Stories'' published by George Rutridge Bookstore in London in 1930; 2) The English translation of ''K’ung I-chi'' by the American Jin Shouzhuo (G.A.Kennedy 1932: 14-15), which was later included in ''Isaacs'' (Isaacs 1974: 25-32) edited by Yi Luosheng; 3) ''K’ung I-chi'' translated by Lin Jijin (Lin 1935:3-4); 4) Unsigned version of The Tragedy of ''K'ung I-Chi'' (Anonymous 1936: 2-3); 5) ''K’ung I-chi'' was co-translated by American journalists Edgar Snow and Yao Xinnong; 6) later comes to Yang Xianyi and Gladys's translation ''K'ung I-chi'' (hereinafter referred to as "Yang Translation") (Yang & Gladys 1960: 40-46); 7)Then, famous American sinologist William Lyell translated ''Kong Yiji'' (Lyell 1990: 42-48); 8) other translation of ''Kong Yiji'' was produced by British sinologist Lan Shiling ( Lovell 2009: 32-36).

This article focuses on Yang's translation, trying to explore Yang and Dai's translation strategies, styles and methods of ''Kong I-Chi'' from the lexical, syntactic and semantic levels, and aims to explain the functional equivalence in the English translation of Lu Xun's short stories.

=== Analysis of the Translation of ''Kong I-Chi'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence ===
==== Lexical Analysis ====

There are many cultural-loaded words in the original Kong I-Chi text, such as this. Culture-loaded words are deeply imprinted by the region and era of a certain language society which express things and concepts peculiar to a certain culture. Such words as “进学” and “秀才” not only carry rich cultural connotations, but also exist only in a certain culture which may be blank in another culture. It is this characteristic which is “I have and you do not have” that often becomes an obstacle to cross-cultural communication and translation. From the perspective of Functional Equivalence, this thesis will analyze how these words are handled in Yang's translation.

In the sentence “幸亏荐头的情面大，辞退不得”, the word “荐头” was translated into “someone influential” by Yang and Dai. “荐头” is the person who introduces works to other people in ancient China. Such person is absolutely influential. But for reader, such influential people may be a nobleman or someone who is very authoritative in the area which may result in discrimination. The job introducers also can be regarded as common people instead of the influential. From the perspective of Functional Equivalence, Yang’s translation explicitly showed the deep meaning with loss of cultural characteristic.
The phrase “之乎者也” was translated into “archaisms” which stands for the use of an archaic expression. In Chinese, the original meaning of “之乎者也” is four auxiliary words commonly used in classical Chinese. Therefore, the word "之乎" also refers to the basic abilities that a scholar should possess. Later, it is used to ridicule the scholar who only knows how to analyze words while cannot solve practical problems. Functional equivalence theory requires efforts to create translations that not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. The word “archaisms” corresponds exactly to the description of Kong I-Chi in Lu Xun’s story who is a nerd.

Other prototypical cultural-loaded word is “进学”. Yang translated it into “pass the official examination”. As a link in the imperial examination system in ancient China, “进学” means that the children of the Qing dynasties who can pass the examination will be admitted to the prefectural and county schools. Such system is unique to China. To achieve functional equivalence, that is, to allow non-native readers to understand this special cultural mark, the translator must explain this cultural phenomenon as much as possible or find a corresponding expression in the foreign language culture. The same in the word “秀才” on this sentence “你怎的连半个秀才也捞不到呢?” “秀才” also belong to the imperial system. “秀才” is a subject for selecting officials in ancient China, and it was once used as a special name for school students. Yang translated it into “passed the lowest official examination”. As the minimum requirement of the ancient imperial examination system, those who passed the selection examination were called “秀才”. According to Nida’s theory, it perfectly expresses the ancient Chinese imperial examination system, and at the same time allows foreign language readers to understand Kong I-Chi’s knowledge background.

==== Syntax Analysis ====

In terms of syntax, the differences in sentence patterns between English and Chinese are the most salient. English emphasizes hypothesis while Chinese emphasizes parataxis, which leads to the conversion of sentence patterns in the process of translation. According to Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, if the change in form is still insufficient to express the meaning and culture of the original text, the translation technique of "reconstruction" can be used to resolve cultural differences and make the source language and the target language equal in meaning. "Reconstruction" refers to the conversion of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language (郭建中,2000 , P67), that is, the cultural connotation of the source language article is explained by the vocabulary of the target language.

In ''Kong I-Chi'', when Kong I-Chi took our his money and ordered some food, other people started to sneer at his revenue sources and said “你一定又偷了人家东西了!” The exclamatory sentence in the original text showed others' affirmation of Kong I-Chi's theft. Yang translated it into “You must have been stealing again!” Here we can notice the tense of the two sentences. Lu Xun used the past tense in original text, which expresses that Kong I-Chi's stealing is an established fact. However, Yang used the present perfect continuous tense when translating. In English, the present perfect continuous tense manifests that something the subject has done in the past is still being done, and may continue in the future, expressing the continuation of an action. There is no need to add any other additional descriptions, just from this tense, readers can realize everyone's thoughts on Kong I-Chi's theft. Such reconstruction of tense verifies the application of Functional Equivalence Theory in turn.

Afterwards, these people who deprecated him refuted Kong I-Chi's maintenance of himself, saying: “什么清白?” In Yang's translation, it is translated as “Pooh, good name indeed!” In the original text, it is originally an interrogative sentence, but Yang transformed it into an exclamation sentence, added English slang “pooh” in it and translated “清白” into good name. If the interrogative sentence in the original text is literally translated into "what’s the innocence", the comic effect, that is, everyone's disdain for Kong I-Chi in the exclamatory sentence will not be achieved. The sentiment contained in the original text is successfully conveyed through the conversion of sentence patterns.

When describing Kong I-Chi’s knowledge background, the original text mentioned: “幸而写得一笔好字，便替人家钞钞书”. In Yang’s translation, he didn’t directly translate it into a verb phrase instead of into a noun phrase which was “Happily, he was a good calligrapher.” Knowing the characteristics of English and Chinese languages, he metonymically recreated dynamic Chinese verb clauses into static noun clauses.

==== Semantic Analysis ====

How to eliminate cultural differences as much as possible so that the semantics of the original language can be perfectly embodied? From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, the translator needs to transform the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language which requires translator to use the corresponding vocabulary in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can accept the translation more easily. For example, in the original text, the sentence “因为他姓孔，别人便从描红纸上的 ‘上大人孔乙己’这半懂不懂的话里，替他取下一个绰号，叫作孔乙己” includes an allusion: 上大人孔乙己 which refers to a character in the card game popular in ancient China. In such card game, the characters always are drawn in a red paper. For children in ancient China, the card game was easy to play and was a childhood memory.

In Yang’s translation, he translated it into “As his surname was Kung, he was nicknamed ‘Kung I-chi’, the first three characters in a children's copybook.” Such translation omits a lot of information from the original text, such as “描红纸上” and “半懂不懂”. But Yang gave a substitute for the omission: he explained the game allusion about children which can be regarded as a strategy that helps foreign readers better understand how Kong I-Chi comes.

Another illustration is the translation of this sentence: “孔乙己，你当真认识字么？” It seems fairly easy for common people to translate it with “Kong I-Chi, do you really know words?” , while Yang gave a different version: “Kung I-chi, do you really know how to read?” In our cognitive concepts, if a man knows how to read a word, then he must know this word. But if he knows the word, he may not only know how to read it, but even know how to write it. Such special mechanism is called conceptual metonymy. Yang metonymically narrowed the scope of the meaning of the word “认识”and accurately positioned the meaning of this understanding according to the context. The translator abandons the equivalence of form and achieves the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation.

===Conclusion===

This article selects Yang’s translation of "''Kong I-Chi''" as the study case, and analyzes the translation effect from three aspects: lexicon, syntax and semantics, combined with Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory. It is believed that the translator flexibly uses a variety of translation methods to deal with the differences between English and Chinese languages, and the translation has realized functional equivalence as a whole.

At the lexical level, the translator adopts the naturalization method when translating the proper nouns of " ''Kong I-Chi'' ", adding notes to individual words. The translation perfectly conveys the meaning of the original vocabulary.

At the syntactic level, when there are differences in the expression of English and Chinese sentences, the translator will split the sentence, adjust the subject and object of the sentence, change the sentence structure and the sentence order to make the translation conform to the expression of the target language where the translation is smooth and natural. When translating the allusions of " ''Kong I-Chi'' ", the translator adopts literal translation and annotations.

In terms of semantics, the translator uses the mechanism of conceptual metaphors to accurately show the original flavor.

This article believes that the success of Yang’s English translation of "''Kong I-Chi''" lies in its fluent, natural language and exotic flavor. The author and translator of " ''Kong I-Chi'' " are both famous artists. The translation case from the English translation of "''Kong I-Chi''" reflects the practical application of the Functional Equivalence Theory in Lu Xun's novels. The writer also hopes that this thesis can provide ideas and inspirations for the English translation of other Lu Xun's novels.

===Reference===
[1]Nida E.A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2001.

[2]Nida, Eugene A.1964. Towardsa ''Science of Translating'', Leiden: E.J.Brill.

[3]Nida, Eugene A.&Charles R.Taber, 1969, ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Leiden: E.J.Brill

[4]鲁迅Lu Xun.鲁迅全集(第一卷)Selected Work of Lu Xun(volume Ⅰ）[M].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House ,1982.

[5]谭载喜Tan Zaixi．新编奈达论翻译New Nida's Translation[M]．北京Beijing：中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation，1999.

[6]杨坚定Yang Jianding，孙鸿仁Sun Hongren．鲁迅小说英译版本综述A Summary of the English Versions of Lu Xun's Novels[J]．鲁迅研究月刊Lu Xun Research Monthly，2021(4)．

[7]伊塞尔Iser.本文中的读者 Readers in this article[A]．二十世纪西方美学名著选（下）Selected Works of Western Aesthetics in the Twentieth Century (Part 2)[C]．上海Shanghai：复旦大学出版社Fudan University press,1998.

[8]杨宪益.Yang Xianyi,戴乃迭 Dai Naidie译.鲁迅选集英文版(一) Selected Works of Lu Xun (1)[M].北京:外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press,1980.

[9]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%8A%9F%E8%83%BD%E5%AF%B9%E7%AD%89%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA/3373397?fr=aladdin

[10]https://www.zhihu.com/question/29965932

=颜子涵 Translation methods and strategies applicable to the style of biographical literature -- Taking Incidents in Life of Slave Girl (excerpt) as an example=

[[Trans_Type_EN_8]]
===Abstract===
The translated text of this article is a part of the English biography Incidents in Life of Slave Girl. The author of this work is Harriet Jacobs. This translation mainly takes the translation functional equivalence theory of American linguist Eugene A.Nida as the theoretical framework, adopts some translation skills in translation practice, and discusses the translation skills and Strategies of Chinese translation of such texts by analyzing the stylistic characteristics of biographical literature, especially African American autobiography. Through the Chinese translation of this autobiography, we can have a clearer understanding of the history of slavery in the United States, a deeper understanding of the lives of slaves and how this system of discrimination against blacks oppresses and persecutes slaves, especially female slaves.

===Key Words===
Autobiographical Literature; Black female slaves; Translation methods and Strategies

===Introduction===
This work belongs to the category of biographical literature. Biographical literature is a literary genre in which the author reproduces the characters' life stories and experiences, shows the characters' spiritual outlook and values, and depicts the characters' distinct love and hate and vivid personality through documentary writing and a variety of literary and artistic techniques.

There are more than 50 characters involved in the biography. In the author's works, these characters are very vivid, such as the forbearance of a strong grandmother to the slave owner, the loyalty of a hard-working aunt to the slave owner, the oppression of female slaves by a crafty and sinister doctor, and the wit of Linda Brent, the heroine who pursues freedom and courage.

In particular, the author's description of the heroine's seven years spent in a "cage" like cabin before she fled to the North more ruthlessly castigates the evil of slavery. The heroine's experience deeply moved her relatives and friends, including white slave owners. With the help of her relatives and friends, the heroine was able to escape to the north.

Taking the translation functional equivalence theory of American linguist Eugene Nida as the theoretical framework, In this paper i have adopted the following translation skills in the process of translation:

1. The translation methods of foreignization and domestication are used to achieve partial functional equivalence between the source language and the target language, so as to reduce the lack of culture after translation. 2. According to the similarities and differences between English and Chinese language structures, literal translation and free translation are used to make the translation conform to the expression habits of the target language. 3. The methods of addition and subtraction are adopted to make the translation consistent with the original in grammar and language form, as well as in cultural background and word association. 4. The Conversion Transformation is adopted to make the translation more acceptable to the target language readers. By analyzing the stylistic characteristics of biographical literature, especially African American autobiography, the author discusses the translation skills and Strategies of Chinese translation of such texts.

This paper is divided into four parts. The first part is an overview of the translation project, which mainly introduces the relevant situation of the translation project, the author and works of the translated text; The second part discusses the purpose and significance of the research; The third part, translation theory and case analysis, including functional equivalence theory, translation strategies and case analysis; The fourth part is the summary of the project, mainly on the problems encountered in translation, the experience and inspiration gained in the process of translation.

=== Text background===
From the beginning of the British northern colony to the early 20th century, blacks were brutally exploited and oppressed by the slavery system. In particular, female slaves not only had to bear heavy labor, but also suffered the destruction and abuse of supervisors. Since the publication of the first Autobiography of black slaves in 1760, some advanced elements in black slaves denounced and denounced the evils of slavery with their own experience, and made outstanding contributions to the abolition movement.

The author of this work is Harriet Jacobs, whose pseudonym is Linda Brent. Born in a slave family, she fought tirelessly because she could not bear the persecution of slave owners on her and her children. After fleeing to the north, the author wrote a biography of her personal experience of being enslaved, exploited, persecuted, fleeing to the north and realizing freedom, which was published in 1861.

Through the Chinese translation of this autobiography, more people have a clearer understanding of the history of slavery in the United States, a deeper understanding of the lives of slaves and how this system of discrimination against blacks oppresses and persecutes slaves, especially female slaves.

===Research Purpose and Significance===
This autobiography of black women starts from the experience of childhood from the perspectives of black slaves and women. In the process of growing up, the author experienced different masters of good and evil. When she was a child, her hostess let the author learn to read and write. Later, she died of illness. Then the new owner, Dr. flint and his wife tortured and framed her. Later, for the freedom of her children, the author resolutely decided to flee to the north and enjoy the right to freedom with her children. In the process of pursuing freedom, she went through escape, pursuit, hiding until he went north by boat.

The author selects simple but typical examples in daily life, through the description of characters' psychology and language, the contradictory struggle between the interests of opposite classes, the criminal complaint of slave trafficking, and the process of slaves fleeing to the north, reveals the slave owner's naked exploitation and fraud of slaves, and reveals the slave's sincerity, courage and longing for freedom. The simple language and narrative techniques of the work fully shape the tenacity, courage, intelligence and clear love and hate of the female slave Linda Brent, and show the readers the misfortune and suffering of many slaves.

=== Translation theory and its application ===

==== Functional equivalence theory ====
This translation practice report takes the translation functional equivalence theory of American linguist Eugene Nida as the theoretical framework. Eugene Nida is an American linguist and a famous translation theorist. From the perspective of etymology, according to the essence of translation, he put forward the famous dynamic equivalence translation theory, namely "functional equivalence".

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language". He believes that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic style and stylistic equivalence. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. There is also equivalence in dynamic equivalence, including lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence.

Nida pointed out that the translation should be functionally equivalent to the original text. Judging whether the translation is equivalent to the original text should be based on the psychological response of the readers, that is, the translator should not only stay in the equivalence of structure and semantics, but strive to make the target readers produce the functions and effects that the original author wants to achieve through his works, so as to make the target readers after reading the translation, Get the same feelings as the original readers, and make translation really become a converter of thoughts, feelings and cultural information.

Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.

The core of Nida's functional equivalence theory is "content is greater than form", which emphasizes that when there is a conflict between content and form, content must precede form (Nida, 2004:203). Due to the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and logical habits, in order to make the translation conform to the habits of readers in the target country and make it easier for readers in the target country to accept, the author has adopted different translation methods and strategies in translation.

According to the specific content of Nida theory, this paper intends to analyze its application in English-Chinese translation practice from four aspects.

Frist, According to the similarities and differences between English and Chinese language structures, literal translation and free translation are used to achieve lexical semantic equivalence between the source language and the target language.second, addition and subtraction and part of speech conversion are used to make the translation conform to the expression habits of target slogans in grammar and language form and consistent with the original text in terms of cultural background and word association. third, forward and reverse translation is used to reproduce the original text .Fourth, for the long and difficult sentences of the original text, the translation methods such as reorganization, sentence splitting and merging are adopted to make the language expression forms of the translation more rich and diverse, and more easily accepted by the target language readers.

=== Translation skills, methods and case studies===

When translating vocabulary, the author mostly adopts the literal translation method to convey the information of the original text more accurately. If the meaning of the translation is not accurate enough or does not conform to the Chinese expression habits after the literal translation, the author adopts the free translation method, while for the long and difficult sentences with complex structure, the translational translation method and split method are adopted to make them conform to the Chinese expression habits and more acceptable to the readers.

====Case 1: literal translation and free translation to achieve semantic equivalence in vocabulary====

In the process of translation, it is the basic quality of every translator to correctly express the source language in the target language. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must start with the smallest unit of the source language—vocabulary. In project translation, the author follows the functional translation theory and pursues semantic equivalence. First, we must ensure the equivalence of lexical meaning. The author mainly discusses the semantic equivalence of words from two aspects: literal translation and free translation.

1. Literal translation
Literal translation emphasizes the consistency between the original text and the translation in form and content, which helps to maintain the style of the original text. Literal translation is not a dead translation, a hard translation, or a literal translation. Literal translation emphasizes retaining its form and reaching its meaning.

The example 1:“Nothing could please her better than to see me humbled and trampled upon” is literally translated as ”没有什么比看到我恭顺谦卑、任人践踏更让她快活啦。”

Analysis: In this sentence, humbled and trampled upon is used to express the due psychology and living state of slaves in the eyes of slave owners. Here, it can be translated into obedience, humility and trampling, which can reflect the coldness of slave owners and the misery of slaves.

2. Free translation
Paraphrase emphasizes divine similarity. When the original text is quite different from the translation in terms of lexical meaning, syntactic structure and style, it can not be confined to the original text. Free translation should be adopted to explain the form of the original language in another language form, so as to correctly express the ideological thrust of the original text. Free translation should conform to the grammatical norms and expression habits of the target language, so as to make the translation more fluent and natural. Free translation is not arbitrary addition and deletion, nor random translation. Free translation emphasizes "preaching its spirit" rather than "retaining its shape". The work belongs to biographical literature. There are great differences between the source language culture and the target language culture. The translator can not adhere to literal translation from beginning to end, but should carry out free translation according to needs, so as to achieve better translation effect.

The example 2: I resolved to give him no cause to accuse me of being too much of a lady, so far as work was concerned.

literal translation: 就工作而言，我决心让他找不到口实指责我过分淑女。

free translation: 就工作而言，我决心让他找不到口实指责我养尊处优

Analysis: a lady originally means 女士或优雅的女子. Too much of a lady is often understood as 十分优雅. Because the author could read and write and looked dignified, he had not done heavy work like other slaves before, "I" guessed that the young master was disgusted with it. Here, too much of a lady is translated by free translation, which reflects the inner contempt of the young master for "me".

====Case 2: addition, subtraction and part of speech conversion make the translation achieve sentence meaning equivalence, which is in line with the expression habit of the target language====

3. Additional translation

The example 4: One day, she sat under the window where I was at work, crying that weary cry which makes a mother's heart bleed.

Translated text: 一天，她就坐在我干活的那个房间的窗户外哭，哭得声嘶力竭让任何一个做母亲的心里流血。

Analysis: A mother literally means "一个母亲", but the following clause is translated into "哭得声嘶力竭让一个母亲的心里流血". The emotion of the translation is weak. In this article, "I" as a slave must work and can't take into account children and family affection, because in the slave owner's view, slaves are low animals and don't deserve feelings. Although I heard my daughter crying, I couldn't get over it. Any mother would be distressed to hear her daughter's cry. In order to make up for the lack of emotion in literal translation, the method of additional translation should be adopted here, which is translated as "任何一个母亲"

4. Omission

The example 5: The doctor stamped his foot at him in a rage, and exclaimed, "Get out of the way, you little damned rascal! If you don't, I'll cut off your head."

Translated text：医生愤怒地跺了他一脚，厉声说道：“滚开!他妈的小坏蛋，如果不听话，我把你的头砍下来!”

Analysis: Dr. flint twice went to the north to pursue the fugitive slave "I" without success. He spent a lot of money and was full of anger. At this time, my son asked him if he had brought his mother back. Dr. flint stamped his feet angrily, scolded and threatened the child. Through the vivid description of Dr. Flint's body movements and language, his angry image jumped onto the paper,In order to achieve the same effect and achieve the equivalence of language style, the author uses even verbs according to the original "stamped his foot at him in a rage, and exclaimed" and translates it into "stamp his foot angrily and say" you little damned rascal!!! "It is also a typical strong adult's words towards weak children. In order to be concise and powerful, the author omits "you" and translates it into "他妈的小坏蛋".

The example 6: But when winter came, the cold penetrated through the thin shingle roof, and I was dreadfully chilled.

Translated text：上次遭遇蛇咬，现在我对蛇更惧怕了，踏上这个藏身的地方，我不由心惊胆颤。

Analysis: My fear of snakes is literally translated as "我对蛇的恐惧", and the subject of the following clause is "我". In order to give the target readers a unified reading perspective, my fear of snakes had been increased is translated as: 我对蛇更惧怕了. By transforming the noun of fear into a verb, the translation is more concise and more in line with Chinese expression habits than literal translation.

====Case 3: The stylistic style of the original text is reproduced by positive and negative translation====

5.The Positive and Negative Translation

The example 7:Nobody respects a mother who forsakes her children; and if you leave them, you will never have a happy moment.

Translated text 1：没有人尊重抛弃孩子的母亲，如果你离开他们，你永远不会幸福的。

Translated text 2：抛弃孩子的母亲会遭人唾弃，如果你离开他们，你永远不会幸福的。

Analysis: This sentence contains a negative indefinite pronoun—nobody. In translation text 1, the first half of the original text (Nobody respects a mother who forsakes her children) is translated into "没有人尊重抛弃孩子的母亲". Although the meaning is translated, the expression is not authentic. Translation text 2 uses the positive and negative translation method to change negative into positive, and “Nobody respects” into "being despised" can better express the speaker's (my grandmother's) eagerness to oppose "I" to escape.

====Case 4:The translation methods of reorganization, sentence splitting and merging are adopted to make the translation conform to the expression habits of the target language====

There are great differences between English and Chinese syntactic structures. English is a linear language. Its syntax takes the subject predicate structure as the central axis, while other components form branch lines in the form of branches and connect with the main axis through connectives. The logical relationship between sentences tends to be explicit,; Chinese is more parataxis, and the combination between the components in a sentence or between sentences mostly depends on the connection of semantics and uses fewer connectives. Chinese sentences are arranged under the command of theme, that is, the structure of "topic description" has various forms and free combination. The logical relationship between sentences is more implicit (Yang Lin, 2007: Preface). There are few logical relational words between clauses and between sentences. Therefore, the author adopts the reorganization method, combining syntax and disassembling syntax to realize the semantic equivalence of sentences, and studies the influence of sentence structure on the translation. The significance is to better guide the translation practice.

6.Recasting

The example 7: This was the good old lady who paid fifty dollars for my grandmother, for the purpose of making her free, when she stood on the auction block.

Translated text：这个老太太是个好人，当年外祖母站在拍卖台上，为了让外祖母获得自由她花五十美元买下了我的外祖母。

Analysis: The original text contains two compound structures, one is an attributive clause, the other is a time adverbial clause. Because Chinese sentences are constructed according to the law of logical order, the word order is arranged according to the actual sequence and event order, which is divided into sequence in time, and pay attention to the causality in logic. The author adjusts the time adverbial clause to the front, first explain the time, then explain the reason, and finally the result. This reorganized translation plays an important role in shaping the relationship between sentences, which is in line with the characteristics of Chinese sentence structure.

7.Sentence-combining

The example 8: There was joy and there was sadness in the sound. It made my tears flow.

Translated text：无论是哭声还是笑声都会让我泪流满面。

Analysis: The original text is two sentences. Considering the close causal relationship between the two sentences, the author adopts the translation method of combined sentence to translate it into one sentence, so that the target language readers can read it more naturally.

8.Dismantle the syntactic

The example 9: My hope was that the doctor would get discouraged, and, for fear of losing my value, and also of subsequently finding my children among the missing, he would consent to sell us; and I knew somebody would buy us.

Translated text：损失一个女奴，再赔上我的两个孩子，这正是弗林特医生所担心的。他会泄气并同意卖掉我们，我知道有人会买下我们，而这正是我所希望的！

Analysis: When dealing with long English sentences, the method of splitting is generally used to divide the original sentence into several parts and combine them according to their internal logical relationship. The adverbial clause after the subject of “My hope” consists of three parallel sentences, the second of which has a more complex cause adverbial. The author first takes apart the subject clause, first translates the clause, and then presents the subject at the end, which is in line with the characteristics of Chinese presentation before topic.

====Case 5: Stylistic equivalence====

The basic task of translation is to faithfully present the original text, so it is necessary for the translator to pursue the style of the original text. To achieve stylistic equivalence, the translator needs to analyze and identify the stylistic markers in the original. The original text contains national language characteristics, historical allusions and religious beliefs, so it has cultural differences. In translation, it should reflect the style of the original text and optimize it accordingly, so as to realize the re creation of style and adapt to the communication of the target language.

The original text has strong religious and cultural content, simple and pious faith, and shows their enthusiasm and passion for them. In translation, we should not only show the feeling of religious belief and culture, but also optimize the sentence style and deal with alienation appropriately, so that readers can feel the piety and understand the author's writing intention.

The key to shaping the problem role lies in its adaptability to the style of the original language. Only by adopting appropriate translation methods, deeply understanding the cultural background of the original text and skillfully changing the style of the original text, can the style meaning of the original text be reproduced in the target language and better reflect its charm and artistic conception.

In a word, a biographical text should be well expressed first to make it conform to the expression habits of the target language. First, we should deeply understand the creative intention of the original author and think of what we think from the perspective of the original author, so as to realize the central idea of the original text. The premise of translation is that the translator should have profound language and cultural skills and deeply understand the particularity of different background cultures, Have a good command of the target language, and then use it flexibly.

The example 10: She hasn't so much feeling for her children as a cow has for its calf. If she had, she would have come back long ago, to get them out of jail, and save all this expense and trouble.

Translated text：她对孩子的感情还不如母牛呢，母牛还知道护犊子。如果她有感情，她很久以前就会回来把他们救出去了，也就没有这些代价和麻烦了。

Analysis: This sentence is a complaint made by Dr. Flint's wife—my mistress, about my escape. Considering that cows in Chinese culture also have the image of caring for their cubs, The author translates call “feeling for her children as a cow has for its calf” as：“母牛还知道护犊子”, This not only achieves cultural equivalence, but also sounds colloquial. On the other hand, it is in line with the speaker's identity as a mean slave owner.[He was "a chip of the old block." If he found any slave out after nine o'clock, he could whip him as much as he liked; and that was a privilege to be coveted.如果他发现任何人九点后（宵禁时刻）跑出去，他就会抓住并鞭打此人，直到他满意为止。这是别人垂涎三尺的特权。]

===Conclusion===

Through the development of this project, the author believes that the translation of biographical works needs to have a full understanding of the differences between Chinese and English languages and cultures, thinking habits and expression methods. Only after having an accurate understanding and grasp of the language characteristics and contents of the original text, can words and sentences be carefully selected and constantly modified and polished in the process of translation, Make it an excellent translation. The author summarizes the following points in the whole translation process:

The translation method of biographical text. Biographical text has both information function and expression function (Zhang Meifang, 2006). Therefore, in translation, the translator should not only correctly express the information of the original text, but also reflect the literariness of biographical literature.

In view of the differences in thinking and logic between Chinese and English, different translation methods should be adopted in the translation process. For example, literal translation can be used in terms of vocabulary, so as to simply, clearly and accurately convey the meaning of the original text. If literal translation is not possible, free translation, addition or subtraction, positive and negative translation, such transformation and other methods should be adopted to strive to achieve literal semantic equivalence.

In terms of sentences, according to the respective characteristics of Chinese and English sentence structures, translation skills such as reorganization, disassembly and combination of syntax are adopted in order to meet the reading habits of target language readers. Experience the language style of biographical literature. In this project, the author's narrative language is simple and simple, and do a good job in the analysis of the characteristics of biographical literature materials. For a translator, the types of material translation can be diverse, literary or scientific, so the translator must do a good job in the analysis of text materials when he gets a relatively unfamiliar translated text, Only after analyzing the materials thoroughly and finding out the characteristics can the preparatory work be done adequately.

This project adopts biographical text, which is characterized by many names and place names and strong local cultural characteristics. Therefore, in order to improve the accuracy of translation, the author has made a lot of preparations before translation, including finding the author's relevant background information, relevant historical facts, as well as the folk customs at that time. With reference to the new English Chinese dictionary, the names of people and places in the text are translated uniformly. Due to sufficient preparation, these problems encountered in translation have been solved.

The author has two experiences in maintaining problem awareness in the translation process. First, if you encounter an uncertain word and sentence in the translation process, you should consult the relevant reference books in time or use the Internet. Second, when dealing with cultural problems, I often ask my classmates or experts in this field for advice, so as to solve the problems in time.

At the same time, there are some problems in the process, My translation experience is still shallow and the cultural knowledge reserve is insufficient. There are some disadvantages in this project:

Frost, Because my Chinese level needs to be further improved, the translated language is still immature and not concise enough.

Second, the lack of relevant knowledge leads to the fact that the unique things of foreign culture can only be translated directly and hard in translation, resulting in the stiff and rigid translation. Such as a box, covered with sheepskin, is called the gumbo box. A dozen beat on this, while other strike triangles and jawbones, to which bands of dancers keep time.

Third, in translation, we should not only maintain the meaning of the original text, but also reflect the style of the original text. We can't have both fish and bear's paw—鱼和熊掌不可兼得。Therefore, I believe that only through a lot of translation practice and summing up experience can we improve our translation level.

===Reference===
[1]Beardslee, Karen E. Through Slave Culture's Lens Comes the Abundant Source: Harriet A. Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl." MELUS 24 (1999): 37-58.

[2]Jacobs Incidents in the life of a Slave Girl: Written by herself." Languages &Literature 15(2001):314-336.

[3]Incidents in Life of a Slave Girl chapters 16 to 30

[4]李小春. (2016). 浅析英语翻译技巧及方法的应用. 读天下(20), 1.

[5]李亚云.《一名女奴的人生际遇》之黑人女性身份建构[J].文学教育(上),2015(07):30-31.p

[6]李亚云. 《一名女奴的人生际遇》之黑人母性分析[D].中央民族大学,2016.

[7]付娟. 英汉翻译中拆句法和合并法的有机结合探析[J]. 好家长, 2016(38):1.

=邝艳丽 On the Translation Strategies of English Version of ''Lun Yu'' from the Perspective of Fusion of Horizons – A Contrastive Study of two translations of Ku Hong-Ming and Xu Yuanchong=
[[Trans_Type_EN_9]]
===Abstract===
''Lun Yu'', one of Chinese classics, records behavior and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples. ''Lun Yu'', intensively reflecting Chinese Confucianism, plays a significant role in Chinese culture. Dating from 1809, there are about sixty translations of ''Lun Yu'' during the two hundred years. This paper will study the two English versions of ''Lun Yu'' by Ku Hung-ming and Xu Yuanchong from the the theory of Horizon Fusion proposed by Hans-Georg Gadamer, mainly the core conceptual words in ''Lun Yu''. Besides, the paper will explore the translation strategies adopted by the two translators from different visions such as the horizons of the original text, the translator and the target culture. The better translation of core conceptual words will come to a conclusion through the contrastive analysis.

===Keywords===
Fusion of horizons; Ku Hong-Ming; ''Lun Yu''; Xu Yuanchong

===Introduction===

''Lun Yu'', as a carrier of Confucianism, has profound influence on the culture all over the world. Confucianism has largely influenced the development of European philosophy, which provide new theoretical basis for European Enlightenment in the eighteenth century (Li Zongzheng 2016: 112-116). In Voltaire’s opinion, the discovery of Chinese culture is important to the process of European society, just as what what has been discovered by Vasco da Dagama and Magellan to the nature (Bao Xiankuo 2001: 62-67). With the continuing development of China in the recent years, China exerts more and more significant influence on the world. In the meanwhile, more and more people would like to learn Chinese language and cultures. When it comes to Chinese culture, all the people, Chinese and foreigners, nearly think of Confucianism, which is generally regarded as the important components of Chinese traditional culture, as well as the mainstream of the spirit of national modern culture. Moreover, Confucianism is intensively embodied in the ancient work called ''Lun Yu'', which records the behaviors and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples mainly in the form of dialogues. ''Lun Yu'' involves so many aspects such as politics, education and so on. The wide and profound influence of Confucianism on the world attributes the success to the development of translations of ''Lun Yu'' by Chinese or foreign translators.

''Lun Yu'' is a classic work. The reason why classics remains classics is that it can be translated and re-translated. The language itself of ''Lun Yu'' is difficult to be understood, and what are reflected by ''Lun Yu'' such as history, thoughts, culture and culture is also hard to be understood. Therefore, translators in different times produce different translations of ''Lun Yu'' due to different constrictions of subjective or objective factors. Derrida, holding the point of hermeneutics, considers that the understanding of works is open and that the understanding of text by the readers is always unfinished and uncertain for reading is the process of creation. ''Lun Yu'', acclaimed as one of the leading classics in the course of Chinese literature’s development, is always given new life by the scholars. Therefore, every translation version of classics deserves to be studiedin the different times. Moreover, the employment of fusion of horizons may not only be a reference for English translation of ancient Chinese classics, but also be beneficial foe the spread of traditional culture.

This paper chooses two English translation versions of ''Lun Yu'', one by Ku Hung-ming, the other one by Xu Yuanchong. The paper mainly makes a contrastive study of different translation strategies adopted by the two translators from the perspective of fusion of horizons. In order to make an in-depth study, the thesis will focus on the analysis of the translation of core conceptual words of ''Lun Yu'', and aim to present a more appropriate translation to both fully express the content of Chinese culture and make western readers easier to understand.

===Overview on the Theory of Fusion of Horizons===

The theory of “Fusion of Horizons” is the core concept of Hans-Georg Gadamer’s Hermeneutic theory.

====Fusion of Hrizons====

Hans-Georg Gadamer is the greatest thinker in 20th century when his academic work ''Truth and Method'' was published. The publishment brought about widespread attention in the world and helped him reach the immortal status in the field of philosophy. Actually, the theory used in this paper is originated from ''Truth and Method''. “Horizon” was first proposed by Edmund Husserl, a great German philosopher. For the concept of “Horizon”, Husserl believed that “everything worldly giving is given under the horizon. Finally, everything given by the world itself has the horizon of the world, and it is only for this reason that it is realized as the world.” (Wei Fangyuan 2013: 134-136)

It can be seen that “Horizon” in Husserl’s eye is related to consciousness. Husserl’s “Horizon” includes two ones, internal horizon and external horizon. Internal horizon refers to what previous knowledge people have grasped or not. External horizon refers to grasp or experience of another open horizon when people have internal horizon. Martin Heidegger, from the respective of Ontology, believed that “Horizon” is something real which has been known by human and exists previously. This becomes precondition of our understanding. Inspired by Martin Heidegger and Edmund Husserl, Hans-Georg Gadamer affirmed the importance of “Horizon”. In his Hermeneutic, “Horizon” refers to the process of understanding from a specific standpoint. And “Fusion of Horizons” means that the process of understanding in nature is open without fixed pattern and answer. “Fusion of Horizon is not onlly diachronic, but also synchronic. History and present, object and subject, self and other, all form an infinite unified entirety. (Wei Fangyuan 2013: 134-136 )

Gadamer thinks that, both the translator and the object which is explained by the translator have their own horizons. The object-- history, classics, personal life, philosophy or work of art—has its own historical horizons. When we understand historical classical works, philosophy or certain culture with the horizons given by the history, the conflict of two different horizons and historical background will inevitably happen. Translation neither demands the translator to totally give up his own horizon in order to get into the text’s horizons, nor allows the interpreter simply includes the text into his own horizons. Translator, starting from his original horizons, ceaselessly test his own “prejudice” and open his own horizons, in the contact with the object which is interpreted by the interpreter, then two different horizons forming a new horizon. This process is called “fusion of horizons”. The reason why it is possible to interpret historical text is the fusion of horizons of the readers and writers of the original text.

====Fusion of Horizons in translation study====

In the view of Hans-Georg Gadamer, any understandings is carried out in the stream of history for any interpreter and reader lives in the history in his or her own way. Historicity is the basic fact of human existence. People’s historical particularity and limitations cannot be eliminated and avoided. Both subject and object exist in historicity. History determines that people cannot get rid of historicity. Such question faced by Hermeneutics is not what we carry out but what caused on us by something beyond our willing and behavior. In the research of translation Gadamer’s “Fusion of Horizons” can be borrowed and reformed into views or perspective available to the translation study. (Li Ge 2020:50-63)

To achieve such a horizon, means that we learn to see something beyond its restricted horizon. However, the reason why we do this is for watching the things in a more correct angle and in a bigger unity, rather than for avoid seeing it.(Gadamer, H. G. 2004: 304) We need to study translation from a higher point and in a more overall angle. Only in this way can we “full see” the parts of the integrity, which is the enlightenment brought by “fusion of horizons”. The precondition of translation is that the translator and the original text have the common horizons. If the translator does not know medicine, he cannot interpret some books about medicine, and vice versa. The translator need to understand the original text’s meanings at first, which means that he will get into the horizon of the original text, and overcome the difference to form a new horizon. This is the first fusion of horizons. The second one is that the translator gets into the horizons of the target readers. Then the third fusion of horizons, the final interpretation of the translator, is the fusion of the two texts after the first two fusions. (Gadamer, H. G. 2004: 304)

During the process of translation, the horizons are produced in the history rather than in isolation. In the fusion of horizons, the past and the present, the subject and the object, form a unity. Everything exists in the point of history, and all the interpretation cannot be finished for good. The original text itself is historical. The language, content, thoughts and etc. in it are marked by characteristics of the times. The translator is also historical. He will be influenced by his identity, status and tradition. There does not exist “perfectness” and “standard” in the translation. It will vary with different historical period. So the study of translation also goes on. (Gadamer, H. G. 2004: 304)

===Overview on the Translations of ''Lun Yu''===

The theory of “Fusion of Horizons” is the core concept of Hans-Georg Gadamer’s Hermeneutic theory.

====The history of translations of ''Lun Yu====

''Lun Yu'' is as important to Chinese is the Bible is to Westerners. So ''Lun Yu''’s translation is hot in western countries. ''Lun Yu'', whose translation can be traced back as early as the end of 16th century, has been translated by lots of missionary, sinologist, philosopher, litterateur and other scholars. There have been more than 40 translation versions of ''Lun Yu'' so far. Its English translation started from 1809 when the British missionary named Joshua Marshman published the first English translation of ''Lun Yu''. In 1861 James Legge’s The Confucian Analects became the mark of the English translation of ''Lun Yu''. A Companion for Chinese Translators makes comments on the translation version that James Legge can roughly understand the meaning of the original text and that his enormous notes can show his serious and careful attitude to the translation of our Chinese classics. (Wang Hui 2003: 39-43)

In 1898, Ku Hong-ming’s translation of Lun Yu was published in Shanghai. The reason why he retranslated Lun Yu is that he was not content with James Legge’s. Ku Hong-ming use the strategy of foreignization, trying to translate Lun Yu in the same way an educated British express his thoughts. And Ku thought the Chinese proper nouns should be omitted and some European writers’ saying in order to remove the feeling of strangeness of British readers. In 1938, Arthur Waley’s version of Lun Yu was published. Waley wrote long-winded introduction for the translation, which was accompanied by detailed notes for readers and was followed by the footnotes for in-depth discussion on the text. Cui Yonglu thought that Waley’s translation, retaining the original text’s meaning and culture and paying attention to the detail, is beneficial to scholars. In 1998, Roger Ames’ translation of Lun Yu was published. His retranslation, which is based on a philosophical perspective, exerted great influence in the world of translation at home and abroad. In 2005, Xu Yuanchong’s Thus Spoke the Master was published. The book’s title borrowed the name of well-known philosophical translation called Thus Spoke Zarathustra, which shows Chinese translators’ creative spirits. In addition, there are still so many translators, such as Ezra Pound, James Ware, Din Cheuk Lau, Lin Yu tang and so on. (Wang Hui 2003: 39-43)

====Different angles of the study on the translations of ''Lun Yu''====
In the nearly 30 years, the study of ''Lun Yu''’s translation has become hot in the translation studies. Scholars have made lot of studies of ''Lun Yu''’s translation from different angles and theories. From the linguistic point of view, scholars focus on the equivalence of lexicon, syntax, text and style. Professor Liu Chongde wrote “A research into Waley’s English version of The Analects—And some comments on its English versions by Legge and D. C. Lau”. Professor Liu summarized the language features and style of the two translations by Waley and Legge. Besides, he compared James Legge’s version and D. C. Lau’s, and made a conclusion that the former one preferred the written English, complicated sentences and archaic words which were quite similar to the style of the original, while the latter one preferred using spoken English and simple sentences.(Liu Chongde 2001:15-17)

From the cultural point of view, Yao Shun in Southwest Jiaotong University did “On English translation of Confucius notions from the perspective of Skopos theory—A case study on Legge’s and Waley’s Translation of ''Lun Yu''”. Yao concluded that translation cannot be measured only by the equivalence with the source text, other elements such as translators’ purposes and expectation of target readers should be taken allowance for and that amongst these factors, the intention of the target text ranks the first.(Yao Shun 2014: 42-43)

From the sociological point of view, Zhang Xin in Jiangnan University did “A study on Xu Yuanchong’s English Translation of ''Lun Yu'' from the Sociological Perspective of Bourdieu”. Zhang draw some tentative conclusions. Firstly, the original text must be valuable and unique with an international reputation to facilitate its dissemination in the world. Secondly, translators should pay full attention to the readability and acceptability of target readers to meet their anticipation. Thirdly, the success of a work is the combination of various social factors.(Zhang Xi 2020:80-89)

=== The Translation of ''Lun Yu'' from Fusion of Horizons===
''Lun Yu'' has always been translated or retranslated into many languages. Before interpretation, interpreters are supposed to try to totally understand ''Lun Yu'' in the first step. However, in the matter of fact, the language of a text is really hard for translators to totally understand. Different cultural background and different translators may produce different translation version.

====Horizon of the original text====
Classical Chinese, hardly used today and unfamiliar to the present people, is featured by being short yet difficult, being concise yet profound. For example, “吾日三省吾身（《学而》） [8]”. In the sentence, “三” , a typical classical Chinese, means many times, which is totally different from the present meaning, number three. “吾”, also a typical classical Chinese meaning “I”, is rarely seen in the present passages, and is replaced by the “我”.
''Lun Yu''’s style is different from others because it does not only include the records of Confucius sayings, but also dialogues between Confucius and his disciples. The language is colloquial and usually a general idea is stated but bot discussed in detail. Though with the colloquial language, it bears rich meanings for each word, with which, Confucianism is clearly and truly expressed. Besides, the frequency of empty words is considerably high among less than 16,000 characters in ''Lun Yu''. For example, “也”, “乎”, “哉” and so on.

====Horizon of the original text====

Classical Chinese, hardly used today and unfamiliar to the present people, is featured by being short yet difficult, being concise yet profound. For example, “吾日三省吾身（《学而》）”.In the sentence, “三” , a typical classical Chinese, means many times, which is totally different from the present meaning, number three. “吾”, also a typical classical Chinese meaning “I”, is rarely seen in the present passages, and is replaced by the “我”.
''Lun Yu''’s style is different from others because it does not only include the records of Confucius sayings, but also dialogues between Confucius and his disciples. The language is colloquial and usually a general idea is stated but bot discussed in detail. Though with the colloquial language, it bears rich meanings for each word, with which, Confucianism is clearly and truly expressed. Besides, the frequency of empty words is considerably high among less than 16,000 characters in ''Lun Yu''. For example, “也”, “乎”, “哉” and so on. (Yao Sshun 2014:42-43)

====Horizon of the translator====

Ku Hung-ming (1857-1928) is not only a famous literary figure in modern China, but also a great translator. He became an influential scholar at the turn of the 20th century because of his works that advocated Confucianism. Ku’s traslated works, including Lun Yu and Zhong Yong, played a significant role in spreading traditional Chinese culture to the western world. Ku, well-versed in both Chinese and Western cultures, has a good command of nine languages such as English, French, Germany and so on. He is the first one was proficient in Western science and language in the late Qing Dynasty. Special background of growth and education makes his thoughts combine advantages between Chinese and Western cultures. He tried to translate Lun Yu as a work written by a educated English man in order to promote Chinese traditional culture to spread in Western countries. At the meanwhile, he added his thinking and understanding of Confucianism in order to express the truth and spirit of Confucian classics and Chinese belief system. In order to make Western readers accept to the most extent the Confucian culture, Ku adopted some special methods, such as using extreme translation strategy of Domestication to translate Chinese special expression; borrowing the expression in Western literature to translate some words; applying the strategy of combination of omission and addition.(Niu Xiyu 2021: 89-90)

When translating Lun Yu, Ku did not use literal translation for formal equivalence, but adopted free translation for dynamic equivalence between the original text and the target text, so that the translation can get closer to Western readers. Western readers are not familiar with Confucian core words whose total equivalence can not be found in the Wesern culture. Ku did not translate the core words according to the literal meaning, but according to his deep understanding of Confucian classics he adopted flexible methods to translate the words in different situation. Besides, in order to make the translation of Lun Yu more readable to Western readers, Ku adopted the stratedy of domestication to interprete Confucian thoughts in Western way of mind. On the one hand, Ku used Western terms to translate those Confucian concept words which is difficult to Western readers. For example, he translates “天” as “God”. On the other hand, he quoted those well-known writers and thinkers who are familiar to Western readers, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ralph Waldo Emersonand so on. Ku tries to make the content and form of the translation to accord with the way of thinking and cognitive structure of Western people. (Niu Xiyu 2021: 89-90)

Xu Yuanchong, professor in Peking University, has been devoting himself in Literature translation study. He accomplished numerous classical translations and proposed many translation theories. He makes contribution to the development of Chinese traditional career.In 1921, Xu Yuanchong was born in Jiangxi Province in China. Since he was a child, Xu Yuanchong had been deeply influenced by his families. His mother was well educated and his uncle worked as a translator. All of these inspired his passion of enjoying literature and going after beauty, as we can see the three-beauty-concept-concept proposed in his later books. His uncle succeeded in translating the play called Wang Baochuan into English, which caused a sensation when it was performed in England. Later on the British dramatist George Bernard Shaw interviewed his uncle, which inspired the great interests of Xu Yuanchong in learning English well. In 1938, he was admitted to the Foreign Languages Department of National Southwest United University with the seventh place. In 1939, he translated the book “别丢掉” written by Lin Huiyin at the first time in order to express his love for a girl. Then he fell in love with translation ever after. Although suffering a lot, he still insisted to be himself. Xu made a great contribution to the development of Chinese translation. Xu introduces the three-beauty-concept to translation theory. The theory of three beauty advocates that a translation should be as beautiful as the original in sense, in sound and in font. These three aspects call also be respectively called Beauty of Sense, Beauty of Sound, and Beauty of Form. Beauty of Sense, emphasizing the deeper meaning, is of the first-rate importance. Beauty of Sound, emphasizing rhyme and rhythm, is of the second-importance. Beauty of Form, emphasizing length, is of the third-rate importance. All of these have great influence on his translation. (Li Mi 2004: 83-84)

====Horizon of the target language culture====
The purpose of translation is to be read by the target readers. However, the target individual is different. They differ from historical background, education, knowledge, and so on. Some foreign readers read Lun Yu just for broaden his vision and know Chinese culture, some study the translation just for doing academic researches. The ages of target readers also influence the translation. Some young readers with less knowledge need translation which can be easily understood. For those aged readers the sophisticated translations are needed. (Niu Xiyu 2021: 89-90)

===Contrastive Analysis===

As Confucian classics recording the words and deeds between Confucius and his disciples, Lun Yu deeply influences generations of Chinese people. Lun Yu combines Chinese rich culture from thousands of years and gathers immortal spirit of Eastern philosophy. Therefore, a number of scholars at home or abroad want to translate Lun Yu. Especially, the various academic conference that has taken place in the recent years attract many scholars to absorb Confucian wisdom and explore Chinese wisdom from the old classics.

====Description of key conceptual words====

''Lun Yu''’s English translation started from 1809 when the British missionary named Joshua Marshman published the first English translation of ''Lun Yu''. Since that many other scholars have thrown themselves in the wave of translation of ''Lun Yu''. The scholars at home and abroad attempt to know more about the Chinese society, language, and Chinese culture through ''Lun Yu''. However, in order to really understand and interpret ''Lun Yu'', we must be clear about the meaning of the core conceptual words in ''Lun Yu''. Whether the translation of the core conceptual words is right or not has something to do with whether the readers abroad can understand the real meaning of the classics ''Lun Yu''. The translation of core conceptual words is so critical that has drawn many scholars’ attention. However, in the present situation of translation, one core conceptual word has so many Chinese translation, and some translation is not very accurate, which will cause trouble for foreigner readers to understand the original meaning and its cultural meaning. For those core words concerning Chinese culture, if wrongly translated, will not cause foreigners’ misunderstanding Chinese traditional culture, but also influence the improvement of national cultural soft power. Thus, the discussion of the translation of ''Lun Yu'', especially that of the core words, is very important to the circles of translation and culture. There are lots of core conceptual words in Lun Yu, but This thesis will mainly discuss the five core words: “''ren''”, “''li''”, and “''junzi''”.
“''Ren''” is the supreme state of moral ideal advocated by Confucius, and the spirit and centre of Confucian theory. Xu Shen in the Eastern Han Dynasty made an explanation of the word “''ren''” in “Shuo-wen chieh-tzu”. He thought “''ren''” is combined by “''ren''”(man) and “er”(number 2), and that “''ren''” does not express the quantitative relation but the interpersonal relationship, more accurately the interpersonal relationship close to friendship. (Xu Shen 2013: 1458) According to The Notes of ''Lun Yu'' by Yang Bojun, “''ren''” appears 109 times in ''Lun Yu'' . (Yang Bojun, 2009)

“''Li''” is another important concept in ''Lun Yu'' after “''ren''”. According to The Notes of ''Lun Yu'' by Yang Bojun, “''li''” appears 74 times. Obviously, “''li''” is one of main ideas repeated by Confucius. Its connotation has become one of the objects the scholars of every dynasty attempt to study and understand since the ''Lun Yu'' came out. Both “''ren''” and “''li''” work as the centre of Confucianism. They complement and perfect each other. Just as the saying in Lun Yu, “To Subdue Oneself and Return to the Proprieties is Perfect Virtue”. “Li” refers to external behavior, while “ren” refers to internal morality. “''Li''” is a general term the rules and regulation according to the moral demanding. “''Li''” can restrict personal behavior, improve interpersonal relationship and help building a harmony and orderly society. However, Confucius does not give an accurate explanation of “''li''”, but its meanings can be analyzed from the concrete sentences concerning “''li''”. (Yang Bojun 2009: 23)

“''Junzi''”, first found in The Book of Songs, was roughly referred to noble man. Thereafter, “''junzi''” was widely used in many ancient classics such as The Book of Changes, Shangshu and so on. Based on the original meaning “the noble man”, “''junzi''”’s meaning was extended and expanded. In Lun Yu, the word “''junzi''” got extended meaning of morality. The core conceptual word “''junzi''” mainly placed emphasis on moral deeds, then developed into the important cultural icon in Confucianism. According to The Notes of ''Lun Yu'' by Yang Bojun, “''junzi''” appears 107 times in ''Lun Yu'' .(Yang Bojun 2009: 11)

====Different translations of key conceptual words====

Different translators will have different translation.

“Ren” has rich meanings. Its translation will to the certain degree influence the understanding of Lun Yu and Chinese traditional culture. For example:
子曰：“巧言令色，鲜矣仁！”《学而》
Ku: Confucius remarked, “With plausible speech and fine manners will seldom be found moral character.”
Xu: A good man, said the Master, would rarely say what he does not believe, or pretend to appear better than he is.
From the translation above, it is seen that Ku adopts free translation, and the English sentence is in formal grammer and syntax which accords with Western readers’ language habits. While Xu’s translation is not in the form of direct speech and he changes the order of the target text and use the parenthesis so as to conform to the habits of target language readers. It can be easily seen that Ku did not use literal translation for formal equivalence, but adopted free translation for dynamic equivalence between the original text and the target text, so that the translation can get closer to Western readers. And Xu employs free translation to make target readers better understand the meanings. For the translation of “ren”, Ku translated it into “moral character”. He thought “ren” is refers to all the morality, and that “ren” is the highest realm of life. The translation “moral character” is more in line with Western language habits. While Xu interpreted it into “a good person”, of which “good” has broad meanings just like “ren” which is a kind of moral category of extremely broad meanings in ancient China. By comparison, “mental character” is better translation for “ren”. (Yang Bojun 2009: 23) (Ku Hung-ming 2011) (Xu Yuanchong 2013:18)

“Li” is generally thought to have three main meanings. The first one is worshiping the God. The second one refers to a ceremony held to show respect or solemnity. The third one refers to the social and moral norms of the aristocratic hierarchy in slave society of feudal society. For example,
道之以道，齐之以礼，有耻且格。（《为政》）
Ku: If, on the other hand, in government you depend upon the moral sentiment, and maintain order by encouragung education and good manners, the people will have a sense of shame for wrong – doing and, moreover, wil emulate what is good.
Xu: If they are led by virtue and order is kept by the rites, they would be conscientious and act in agreement with what is right.
Generally, “li” is rendered as “rites,” “customs,” “propriety,” “ritual,” “moral,” “rules of proper behavior,” and “worship.” However, Ku did not literally translated “li” but to fully understand its original meaning in such concrete situation to translated it into “education and good manners”. While Xu translated it into “rites”. In the Oxford dictionary, “rite” means a ceremony performed by a particular group, often for religious purpose. In Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods of China, the social order was in chaos. Actually, “rite” is a proper word full of Chinese speciality, which is really hard for Western readers to understand. Therefore, Ku’s translation “education and good manners” is better one. It not only convey Confucian thoughts but also make it readable to Western readers. (Ku Hung-ming 2011) (Xu Yuanchong 2013:18)

“Junzi” is Confucian ideal character standard. Then what is “junzi”? In Confucian point of view, “junzi” should be erudite, which is an important standard of being “junzi”. First and the most, “junzi” should be a benevolent man. In addition, “junzi” and “xiaoren” form contrast. For example,
人不知，而不愠，不亦君子乎？（《学而》）
Ku: But he is truly a wise and good man who fees no discomposure even when he is not noticed of men.
Xu: Is he not an intelligentleman, who is careless alike of being known or unknown?
According to Oxford dictionary, the term “exemplary” refers to providing a good example for people to copy. Ku adopted free translation to interprete one word “junzi” into several words “wide and good man”, which is easy for Western peple to understand what “junzi” is. It can be seen that Ku had a thoroungh understanding of Confucian thoughts as well as well-versed in English. While, Xu translated it into “intelligentleman”, which cannot be found in dictionaries. It is a new word created by Xu. “Interlligentleman” is combined by “intelligent” and “gentleman”. In the Oxford dictionary, the term “intelligent” means good at learning, understanding and thinking in a logical way about things. “gentleman” refers to a man who is polite and well educated and who has excellent manners and always behaves well. “Intelligentlemen” seemly attempt to achieve formal equivalence with “junzi”. However, it is unfamiliar to Wetern readers. So Ku’s translation “a wise and goood man”. (Ku Hung-ming 2011) (Xu Yuanchong 2013:18)

===Conclusion===
In this paper, we have talked over two translation versions of ''Lun Yu'' written by Ku Hung-ming and Xu Yuanchong, especially the core conceptual words in ''Lun Y''u. In the matter of fact, both of them had good command of Chinese and western cultures. But their interpretation of Lun Yu were quite different from each other. Here we use Gadamer’s “fusion of horizons” to explain why they had different understandings of Lun Yu. Understanding is regarded as the fusion of horizons between translator and the text in the hermeneutics, however, besides, the target readers should also be taken into consideration. Thus, in the paper, the horizons of the original text, two translators and target readers are expounded in detail. Under the contrast between the two translation versions, we could find out that Ku Hung-ming’s translation is better one which can more convey the meaning of original text and can be easier for the readers of the target culture from the perspective of the fusion of horizons.

However, this paper could not give an in-depth research on the transaltion of ''Lun Yu'' because of the author’s limited knowledge and not thorough understanding of the theory of “fusion of horizons”. In addition, Confucianism has got more and more important influence on the world in the recent years. However, the study of translation of ''Lun Yu'' has not gone far enough. Though lots of scholars have achieved a lot in the field, there is still much work to do in the future. Written by --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 03:41, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

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Gadamer, H. G. Truth and Method[M]. New York: Continuum, 2004: 304.

Wang Hui 王辉. (2003) 理雅各与《中国经典》[J]. [James Legge and Chinese Classics] 2003: 39-43.

Lieu Chongde 刘重德. (2003)《论语》韦利英译本之研究—兼议里雅各、刘殿爵英译本[J]. [A Study of Lun Yu by Whaley—Discussion on contrastive analysis between James Legge and D.C.Lau) 2001: 15-17.

Yao Shun 姚舜. (2014) 目的论视角下的儒家思想核心概念英译研究—以理雅各和韦利《论语》英译对比分析为例[D]. [A Study of Lun Yu Translated by Xu Yuanchong in the perspective of Skopostheory] 2014: 42-43.

Niu Xiyu 牛汐语. (2021) 辜鸿铭《论语》译本中译者主体性的体现[J]. [The Presentation of Translator’s Subjectivity in Ku Hung-ming’s Lun Yu’s Translation] 2021:89-90.

Li Mi 李谧. (2004) 许渊冲的诗译“三美”之说[J]. [Three Beauty in Poetic Translation of Xu Yuanchong] 2004: 83-84.

Xu Shen 许慎. (2013)《说文解字》[Z]. [Shut-wen chieh-tzu] 2013: 1458

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Yuanchong, Xu. (2013) Thus Spoke the Master[M]. Beijing: Dolphin Books, 2013: 12, 18.

=杨柳青 Bian Zhilin's Literary Translation Theories and Practice——Take His Translation of Romantic Poems as Examples=
[[Trans_Type_EN_10]]

=Atta Ur Rahman Exploring Translation Strategies: A Case Study of the English Translation of the Holy Quran=

===Abstract===
This study aims at diagnosing culture-specific items in the English translation of the Holy Quran and the strategies which were used to translate the CSIs. Translating CSIs can be a demanding task because such items have specific meanings in the culture and language in which they exist but not necessarily in others. Taking this fact into account, the present study investigates the strategies used in the translation of culture-specific items in the English translation of the Holy Quran. Moreover, the researcher explored the most frequently employed translation procedures. To achieve these goals, the descriptive approach is applied for the analysis of the translation of specific items of culture. The descriptive analysis is also used for the investigation of the translation procedures used therein. The findings of this study indicate that the use of cultural equivalent strategy was the most frequent applied procedure. The descriptive equivalent and through translation procedures were the second most frequently applied translation strategies which were followed by transference, functional equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, modulation and notes. The results shows that the translation procedures are helpful (especially the target-oriented ones) in conveying the meaning of the text from Arabic into English in different ways.

===Key Words===
The Holy Quran, Translation Strategies/procedures, Culture-Specific Items, Newmark

===Introduction===
1. Overview
Translation that plays a crucial role in introducing the history and in transferring the culture of an area is a kind of communication between different languages. It is also illustrated “as the result of a linguistic-textual procedure in which a text in one language is re-contextualized in another language.” In the re-contextualization, studies on translation demonstrate that there are certain critical points (Munday 2012, 37) that are problematic for translators, especially, when dealing with vital cultural texts such as religious texts (Malmkjær, 2015, 10). It helps to communicate and exchange information with people from different countries and cultures. Khammyseh argues that translation is one of the traditional communicating methods between communities all around the world. (Khammyseh 2005, 9). Jothiraj states that “translation plays an important role in the inter-lingual process of communication”(Jothiraj 2004, 1. Translation is essential for cultures and languages to exchange information. Newmark (1988) defines it as a craft in which a written message in a language is replaced by the same story in another language. According to him, Translation is the art of trying to translate what is written or expressed in one language into another language with the same message or expression. To accomplish a qualified translation, the translator needs to be aware of different aspects. Many scholars in translation have noticed that the difficulty for a translator is to translate texts which deals with religious concepts and cultural specific items.

Nida (1964) indicated that translation is the way of finding natural issues in the TL close to the SL, in terms of message and style. Larson (1998) has acknowledged that dealing with religious and cultural items is the most difficult, both in finding equivalence and analyzing the source vocabulary. Among the many challenges that exist for the translator is to bring the concept of the SL to a deeper meaning in the TL, the main problem is how to give CSIs, the significance which is firmly connected to the particular cultural context.

Culture plays a considerable role, Snell-Hornby assumed that “Culture refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life”.(Snell-Hornby 1988, 33). Another definition of culture is formulated by Goodenough. For him, culture is “what people have to learn as distinct from their biological heritage, must consist of the end product of learning: knowledge, in a most general, if relative, sense of the term."(Goodenough 1957, 167. By this definition, we should note that culture is not only a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions. It is rather the organization of these things. It is the forms of things that people have in their minds, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them”. According to him, if the translator wants to understand a culture, she or he has to understand that culture is a mixture of belief and knowledge.

The religious text and especially the Holy Quran have played a significant role in human life throughout history to guide human beings towards the right path. Translating religious text can be a hectic job. When it comes to religious texts like the Holy Quran, it might be even more hectic. The Holy Quran has a profound impact on the human lives of its believers. It spreads spiritual serenity and peace of mind. Lustig and Joline thought that “religion is an important institutional network that binds people to one another”(Lustig and Joline 2003, 16). But sometimes believers of Islam (whether they are native or not native speakers of the language) face a tremendous difficulty when they want to understand the meaning of a certain lexical unit, lexis that can be identified as Quranic-specific words/phrases.

This study is aimed to probe Newmark's (1988) translation procedures applied to translate cultural items from the SL (Arabic) to the TL (English) and to focus on translation strategies used by the English translator to transfer absolute and in-depth intended meanings of the CSI in the Holy Quran. If we examine Newmark's opinion, seventeen procedures may be needed by a translator in the process of translation. However, only a few translation procedures are relevant to this translation, they are Transference, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, through translation, modulation and notes.(Newmark 1988, 81). These types of translation procedures are usually used to translate cultural terms contained in the text involving Surah Yusuf as a source language. Thus, in the relationship between translation and culture, the strategies offered should be understood as an attempt to make the translation easy to understand by the TR without blurring the message contained in the text written in the SL.

===Translation and Culture===

2. Translation and Culture

Culture and translation are intimately connected, for understanding the culture translation plays a crucial role. In every nation, there are multiple cultures which reflect how people behave, socially, traditionally and politically and also practice their specific languages. Languages have a complex system of communication that humans adapt from different cultural background. When someone wants to know more about any culture, it is necessary to know about that language. For understanding the language they need to translate it as one might not understand the particular language. Thus, translation fills the gap created by languages that is a very important aspect of translation.

The translation is the process of translating a point or text from one language to another, we can also refer translation to moving of something from one place to another. Translation impacts also on our real life, in a way of transforming other cultures, norms and traditions into our culture. Translators play a vital role in culture and mediators between cultures, dedicated to linking the gap that repeatedly hinders effective communication between communities. According to Peter Newmark, “translators have been entrusted the elegant and highly-demanding task of representing cultures for decades” (Newmark 1988, 7). Newmark established connections concerning the relationship between culture and translating. In his book, he regards translation as a process of “representing the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author planned the text” (Newmark 1988, 5). According to him, although this process has been supposed to be simple, in reality, translators have been facing the complex task of translating and conveying culture for decades, ever since countries began establishing relationships between one another. (Newmark 1988, 7).

In the history of translation studies, translation has been discussed through multiple routes which based on practicality and some theoretical aspects. For instance, Catford (1965) defined it as "the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language” (Catford 1965, 20). According to Venuti’s translation is "the forcible replacement of the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text with a text that will be understandable to the target language reader” (Venuti 1995, 18). Schjoldager stated that “a translation is a text that expresses what another text has expressed in another language” (Schjoldager 2008, 19). Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The translation is no longer considered to be a mere cross-linguistic activity but it significantly is cross-cultural communication.”
Since language reflects the way of life and basic parts of it, the process of translation cannot be done without the integration of cultural symbols into the construction of meaning. Hassan (2014), claimed that a good translation “is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features” (Hassan 2014, 2). Hermanns (1999) contributed that translation should be recognized as a cultural act. It is a kind of linguistic-cultural activity that involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions. Similarly, translation is not just a verbal act; it is also cultural, which is an act of communication of cultures. Later, Hassan emphasized a good translation "is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features" and that "reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original"(Hassan 2014, 2).
These statements demonstrate that there is an interaction between translation and culture, Newmark (2001), illustrated that culture in translation competence is “the greatest hurdle to translation, at least the achievement of an accurate and decent translation" (Newmark 2001, 328).

Bearing in mind the general alliance among researchers regarding the importance of culture in translation, the translation activity is a question of transferring the correct meaning and that the translator has a productive role in transferring not only the linguistic system of the source text but also the cultural one. As such, it is extremely difficult to draw a borderline between translation and culture as they are inextricably overlaid and this connection leads to creative translation.

2.1 Culture-Specific Items (CSIs)

Culture-specific items are notions that are specific to a particular culture. These concepts are using in different domains such as flora, fauna, food, clothes, housing, work, leisure, politics, law, and religion in the way of life. These cultural concepts are consist of different suggestion and approaches. For the denomination of these concepts, many scholars and linguists employed different names or terms, relatively different definitions are given and they tried to define some points that were related to the culture but they not defined even the name of the concept clearly. Scholars refer different names to these culture-specific items, Newmark uses the term cultural words. (Newmark 1988, 327) Christine Nord names them “culturemes” (Nord 1997, 9) while in one of the newer studies, focused on the translation of culture-specific items, Mohammad Reza Shah Ahmadi and Fatemeh Nosrati employ a term culture-bound element (Ahmadi and Nosrati 2012, 1).
After a long time, some scholars prefer the terms “culture-specific item” (Aixela, 1997; Davies, 2003), others choose cultural words (Newmark, 2003) or culture-bound phenomena/concepts (Baker, 1992, Newmark, 2003, Robinson, 2003). In this study, the term “culture-specific item” is used as the basic term, as well as its abbreviation CSI, although other synonyms may be used to prevent repetition. "Culture-specific items are defined by different scholars according to their differences and similarities. Meanwhile, Mona Baker (1992) defines specific concepts of culture as “sourcelanguage words that express concepts unknown in the target culture” (Baker, 1992, 21). It may relate to religion, kind of food or social customs. Newmark suggests to culture-specific items as cultural words (Newmark 1988, 94). He further discussed that in many circumstances, cultural words are somewhat easy to detect in a text because they are closely related to a specific language and unable to translate word by word (Newmark 1988, 95). When they cannot be translated literary then he mentioned that the translators usually the purpose is to provide a descriptive-functional equivalent (Newmark 1988, 95).

2.1.1 Translation of CSIs in the Holy Quran

The Holy Quran is the most basic religious book for Muslims, the Quran was revealed to the prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The Quranic corpus, created in an early form of Classical Arabic, is traditionally believed to be a literal transcript of God’s speech and to constitute the earthly production of an uncreated and eternal heavenly original, according to the general view referred to in the Quran itself as “the well-preserved tablet” (al-lawḥ al-mahfūẓ; Qurʾān 85, P. 22). It has a heartfelt impact on human lives and their believers. It spreads spiritual stability and peace of mind. According to (Lustig and Joline 2003, 16) “Religion is an important institutional network that binds people to one another.”
Translating Quranic-specific words/phrases is considered a great challenge for the translators which requires an accurate interpretation and consciousness of the crucial functions of these Quranic-specific words/phrases. Therefore, they have to focus on a set of aspects to attain equivalence and then render the exact meaning. The translation of the Holy Quran is a debatable process because Arabic is full of cultural-specific concepts with no proper equivalent in other languages; consequently, some equivalents fail to convey their cultural meaning thoroughly. The translation is seen as the process of reconstructing a text into other languages. In the Holy Quran, it is mentioned in the Surah of Yusuf: “we have sent it down as an Arabic Quran”, the translated text has been simply seen as a commentary, explaining, or paraphrasing of the source text. In general, exact translation never occurs; rather this can be a basic interpretation of the Holy Quran. In the process of translation of the Holy Quran, language and CSI items and rhetorical features were not inimitable and reproducible into other languages.
Translating CSIs is a strenuous task because such elements have special meanings in culture and language.

===Types of Translation ===
3. Types of Translation
Newmark (1988) determines 8 types of translation which are:

3.1 Word-for-Word Translation

This is usually indicated as an interlinear translation, with the target language immediately below the source language words. The source language word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. These words are translated literally. Some of the uses of point-by-point translation are to understand the mechanics of the source language or to create a difficult text as a pre-translation process.

3.2 Literal translation

In this type of translation, the grammatical structures of the source language are changed to the nearest target language equivalent but the written points remain the same to one another, out of context.
3.3 Faithful translation
This translation attempts to reproduce the original exact meaning within the limitations of the TL grammatical structures. It also conveys cultural words and maintains an unusual degree of grammar and strength in translation. It tries to make the SL author completely loyal to the intent and reality of the text.

3.4 Semantic Translation

Semantic translation takes much of the aesthetic value of the source language text, making sense where appropriate so that there are no implications, wordplay or repetition roots in the finished version. It may translate less important cultural points by a culturally neutral third or active terms but not by cultural equation and it may also give the reader more small concessions.

3.5 Adaptation

This is an unrestricted form of translation. It is used mainly for plays and poetry, the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten (Ahmad 2015, 15).

3.6 Free Translation

The content without a form of the original or the matter without the manner is the productions of free translation. It is also known as intra-lingual translation and it is usually longer than the original.

3.7 Idiomatic Translation

This type of translation replicates the original message but degrades the depth of meaning by selecting meanings and dialogues that do not exist in the original.

3.8 Communicative Translation

This type of translation replicates the original message but degrades the depth of meaning by selecting meanings and dialogues that do not exist in the original.

===Translation Strategies ===

4. Translation Strategies
Many theorists have used the term translation strategy extensively but with some significant differences in meaning and perspective that they see. Many theorists have used the approach of translation comprehensively but with some notable differences in meaning and vision as they appear.

4.1 Aixela Translation Strategies:
According to Aixela (1996), translators need to choose several strategies based on the source language culture and target culture. He distinguishes many of the translation strategies that apply to the translation of culture-specific items and at the same time, he tries to command by the level of their intercultural intervention. He divided it into two groups; conservative groups (5 approaches) and the substitution (6 strategies).

4.1.1. Conservation:
In conservation, the less compelling process includes repetition, orthographic adaptation, linguistic translation, extratextual gloss and intratextual gloss.

4.1.1.1 Repetition: In repetition, there is simply the transference of the culture-specific items from the ST to the TT. Thus, the translator keeps as much as possible the original reference (Aixela, 1996, p. 61). This approach is often used for languages that do not differ in the alphabet and most for names.

4.1.1.2 Orthographic Adaptation: The orthographic adaptation involves writing or
transliteration, mainly when the original term is given in a different alphabet than the one used in the target culture.

4.1.1.3 Linguistics translation: Linguistic translation emphasizes on the way where the translator chooses the source closest to the original text and increases his understanding by giving the TL version which is still relevant to the ST cultural system.

4.1.1.4 Extra-textual Gloss: Here, the extra-textual gloss refers to additional information to the previously mentioned procedures, The translator uses one of the above strategies but considers it as a necessity to explain the meaning or concept of CSI. In this gloss, it can be footnotes, endings, words, ideas, translators in dictionaries, italics and so on.

4.1.1.5 Intra-textual Gloss: It's like the past but the translator feels that he/she can include the globe as an indirect part of the text, not to distract the reader.

4.2.1 Substitution
In substitution, According (Aixela, 1996) “that synonymy, limited universalization, absolute universalization, naturalization, deletion, and autonomous creation are encompassing here”.

4.2.1.1 Synonymy: This strategy is a stylist used to avoid the constant repetition of culturespecific items in the ST.

4.2.1.2 Limited Universalization: When the translator realizes that the culture-specific item is not clear to the reader or that another source CSI exists in the source language which can be replaced, replace it with data. Of course, the location is not as specific to the source language as the first one.

4.2.1.3 Absolute Universalization: The only difference between limited universalization and absolute universalization is when the translator cannot find the best known CSI in the source language or prefers to eliminate the unusual concept and choose a neutral term. (Aixela, 1997, p.63).

4.2.1.4 Naturalization: In this case “translator brings the culture-specific item into the TL culture” (Shokri, Ketabi, 2015, p.8).

4.2.1.5 Deletion: When the CSI is “unacceptable ideologically or stylistically or it is not relevant enough for the effort of comprehension required for the readers” (Aixela, 1996, p. 64), or very clear that the translator does not want to use any strategy, they delete the CSI.

4.2.1.6 Autonomous Creation: When the translator agrees to use non-existent cultural
reference in the ST.(Aixela, 1997).

4.3 Mona Baker’s Translation Strategies
Baker’s strategies have been used by professional translators at word level in their translations, to deal with issues while performing the task of translation. (Baker, 1992). He suggests various procedures to work for unequal treatment at the point level, for example, translation by a more general word, translation by a more neutral / less obvious word, translation by paraphrasing, Using related words, and so on. She formulates the classification in different strategies, which are the following:

4.3.1 Translation by a more general word: According to Baker, this has to do with the meaning of the proposition. Appropriately it works in many languages.

4.3.2 Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word: This is another strategy in terms of semantics it does with differences with obvious meaning.

4.3.3 Translation by cultural substitution: This strategy involves placing culture-specific material that does not have the same predictive meaning as the target language material but may have the same effect on the target reader.

4.3.4 Translation using a loan word: This strategy relies on culture-specific items, modern borrowing points plus interpretation concepts and buzz points.

4.3.5 Translation by paraphrase using a related word: When the source material is written in the target language but separately, and when the frequency used in the source text is high, it will be natural in the target language.

4.3.6 Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words: This strategy can be used when the concept in the source material is not lexical in the TL.

4.3.7 Translation by omission: Losing phrases or words that are not vital to text development.

4.3.8 Translation by an illustration: Here, use examples when the source word is not equal in the target language. Each theorist presents their strategies according to their point of view, however, Baker's (1992) translation strategies include the most applicable set of strategies, as it shows the strategies used by professional translators.

===Cultural Categories ===
5. Cultural categories

5.1.2 Ecology
In this type of cultural category, Newmark labels those words which have some similarities and differences in culture concerning the environment. For Example, animals, colors, astronomy, plants birds etc. They will also have some geographical features that can normally differ from other cultural terms in that they usually have no political, commercial value.
5.1.2 Material culture
Material culture is also known as artefacts, In the category of material culture, Newmark included Food, clothes, housing, transport, and communications and also those objects which are made by humans. For Example, Clothing, atoms, crops, vegetables, jewellery, drugs, planets etc. “Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture. The function of the generic clothes terms is approximately constant, indicating the part of the body that is covered, but the description varies depending on climate and material used, houses and town, and transport.”
5.1.3 Social culture
The social culture is divided by Newmark in two ways, they are work and leisure. For example, Trade, armour, literature, poets, markets, games.
5.1.4 Organisation
Newmark organizations are divided into five categories: political and administrative conditions, historical conditions, and international conditions. ‘The international community terms usually have recognized translations which are in• fact through-translations, and are now generally known by their acronyms', religious terms, artistic terms; “the translation of artistic terms referring to movements, processes and organizations generally depend on the putative knowledge of the readership. For example, adultery, business, corruption, sex, poverty, marriage, divorce etc.”

5.2 Newmark Classification CSIs
Newmark (1988) established the classification of culture-specific items (CSIs) into five classes which are;
Table 1. Newmark classification of Culture-Specific Items.

5.2.1 Categorization of CSIs in Surah Yousuf of the Holy Quran

Verse No. Terms English Translation Categories
1 الۡکِتٰبِ Book Material culture

2 قرُۡءٰنًا Quran Material culture

3 الۡقَصَصِ Narration Gesture

4 رَايَۡتُ Dream Habit

5 کَوۡکَبًا Stars Ecology

6 ال َّ شمۡسَ Sun Ecology

7 الۡقَمَرَ Moon Ecology

8 الۡاحََادِيۡثِ Events Organization

9 يعَۡقوُۡبَ House of Yaqub Material culture

10 يعَۡقوُۡبَ Yaqub

11 ابِۡرٰہيِۡمَ Ibrahim

12 اِسۡحٰقَ Ishaq

13 اقۡتلُوُا Kill Social culture

14 ارَۡضًا Earth Ecology

15 الۡجُبِّ Pit Ecology

16 ال َّ س َّ يارَةِ Wayfares

17 يٰۤابََانَا Father

18 َّ يرۡتعَۡ Eat Social culture

19 وَ يَلۡعَبۡ Play Social culture

20 لَحٰفِظُوۡنَ Guard Social culture

21 وَ اخََافُ Fear Habit

22 الذِئّۡبُ Wolf Ecology

23 عِشَاءًٓ Nightfall Ecology

24 َّ يبۡکُوۡنَ Weeping Habit

25 مَتاَعِنَا Belongings Material culture

26 قمَِيۡصِہٖ Shirt Material culture

27 وَارِدہَمُۡ Water drawer Material culture

28 دلَۡوَهٗ Bucket Material culture

29 بِثمََنٍ ۢ بَخۡسٍ Paltry price Material culture

30 درََاہمَِ مَعۡدوُۡدةٍَ Silver coin Material culture

31 مِّصۡرَ Egypt

32 لِامۡرَاتَِہٖۤ Wife

33 الۡارَۡضِ Land Ecology

34 اشَُدَّ هٗۤ Prime age

35 الۡابَۡوَابَ Door Material culture

36 مَعَاذَ ّٰ ِ Master Organization

37 ال ُّ سوۡٓءَ Evil Habit

38 الۡفَحۡشَاءَؕٓ Lewdness Habit

39 عِبَادِنَا Servant Organization

40 وَ قَدَّ تۡ Ripped Social culture

41 عَذاَبٌ Punishment Social culture

42 ُّ يسۡجَنَ Prison Organization

43 الۡعَزِيۡزِ Minister Organistion

44 حُباؕ Love Social culture

45 فتَٰىہَا Slave Organization

46 سِکِّيۡنًا Knife Material culture

47 مَلکٌَ Angel Organization

48 فَاسۡتجََابَ Prayer Gestures

49 خَمۡرًا Wine Material culture

50 خُبۡزًا Bread Material culture

51 رَاۡسِیۡ Head Material culture

52 ال َّ طيۡرُ Birds Ecology

53 ءَارَۡبَابٌ Gods Organization

54 يٰصَاحِبَیِ السِّجۡنِ Prisoners Organization

55 تعَۡبدُوُۡنَ Worship Gesture

56 ال َّ شيۡطٰنُ Satan Organization

57 الۡمَلِکُ King Organization

58 بَقَرٰتٍ Cows Ecology

59 خُضۡرٍ Green Ecology

60 يٰبسِٰتٍ Dry Ecology

61 سُنۡۢبلُٰتٍ Grain Material culture

62 تزَۡرَعُوۡنَ Crops Material culture

63 يغَُاثُ Rain Ecology

64 يَعۡصِرُوۡنَ Juice Material culture

65 النِّسۡوَةِ Women

66 ال َّ رسُوۡلُ Messenger Organization

67 الۡعَزِيۡزِ Governor Organization

68 ال ّٰ صدِقِيۡنَ Truthful Habit

69 الۡخَائِٓنيِۡنَ Betray Organization

70 خَزَائِٓنِ Treasure Material culture

71 مَ َّ کنَّ ا Power Organization

72 بِرَحۡمَتِنَا Mercy Gestures

73 يَتَّ قوُۡنَ Taqwa Habit

74 الۡمُنۡزِلِيۡنَ Hospitality Habit

75 رِحَالِہِمۡ Camel Ecology

76 وَ ل َّ مَا فَتحَُوۡا Family Organization

77 بَابٍ Gate Material culture

78 اِنِ الۡحُکۡمُ Sovereignty Organization

79 الۡعِيۡرُ Caravan Organization

80 لسَٰرِقوُۡنَ Thieves Organization

81 السِّقَايَۃَ Bowl Material culture

82 تاَ ّٰ ِ Swear Habit

83 کٰذِبيِۡنَ Liars Habit

84 وِّعَاءِٓ Bag Material culture

85 درََجٰتٍ Rank Organization

86 َّ موۡثِقًا Pledge Social culture

87 الۡحٰکِمِيۡنَ Judges Organization

88 الۡقَرۡيَۃَ Town Material culture

89 عَيۡنٰہُ Eyes

90 الۡبَشِيۡرُ News Social culture

91 ابَوََيۡہِ Parents Organization

92 الۡعَرۡشِ Thrown Organization

93 يمَۡکُرُوۡنَ Devices Material culture

94 وَ الۡارَۡضِ Earth Ecology

95 ال َّ سمٰوٰتِ Heavens Ecology

===Translation Procedure ===

6. Translation Procedure

There are seventeen different kinds of translation procedures classified by Newmark. According to (Gallagher 1996, 31), “translation procedures are the technical devices to convey the message of a text in one language into another language.” The difference between translation procedure and translation methods discussed by (Newmark 1988, 81), “translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language.”

6.1 Transference
Transference is the way through which we convert the source language to target language and also contains transliteration or transcription. Transference is also known as loan words, there is no transformation in the spelling of the words that have been translated.

6.2 Naturalization
Naturalization changes the word SL to its pronunciation, then TL to its original form.
Naturalization also adds new connections to external conditions.

6.3 Culture equivalent
In this procedure, SL the cultural word is translated by the target cultural word. The use of the translation of this procedure is limited because it is not accurate, but it can be used in general texts, public and publicity, as well as for brief explanation to readers who do not understand the relevant source language culture.

6.4 Functional Equivalent
This approach is the most accurate path of translating and it uses very neutral cultural points with a new specific term.

6.5 Descriptive equivalent
This strategy is working for the description of the meaning or function of the source language.

6.6 Synonymy
This method of translation is applied when there is nothing to the same.

6.7 Through-Translation
Through translation is the literal translation of common conflicts, the names of organizations and compound parts.

6.8 Shifts or Transposition
This translation procedure involving a change in grammar from SL to TL. This change is done when there is a difference between the structure of the SL and the TL is reasonable.

6.9 Modulation
This procedure is used in the translation of sentences, phrases and clauses. Here the translator looked at the message in the source language sentence from a different angle or a different way of thinking. This strategy is used when the translation of words with literal meaning does not produce a reasonable translation.

6.10 Recognized Translation
The translation process is manifested when the translator uses an authoritative or appropriate translation of an organization's term.

6.11 Translation Label
This procedure is the appropriate one for the translation of a new institutional term, and it is a temporary translation of the source language word.

6.12 Compensation
This process manifests itself when there is a meaningful loss in one part, but compensation in the other part.

6.13 Componential Analysis
In this procedure, the source language word translated into the TL by detailing the components of the meaning of the source language word.

6.14 Reduction & Expansion
In this procedure, the elements of the word 'auto' removed and the elements of the word expanded in the target language.

6.15 Paraphrase
This procedure appears when cultural words need more explanation.

6.16 Couplets
In this procedure, two or more different procedures meet in one translation, couplets, triplets, quadruplets.

6.17 Notes
When the additional information is added to the cultural words for the clarification of readers.

===Analysis and Discussion ===

7. Analysis and Discussion

7.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the procedure of the study and the analysis of culture-specific items in Surah Yusuf. This chapter explores the use of translation strategies in transferring meaning from the ST to the TL and the appropriateness of Newmark's model in interpreting the procedures that the translator applied during the translation process.

7.2 Procedures
To account for the translation of CSIs in this research, the source text of the Holy Quran in Arabic and its English translation translated by Mufti Taqi Usmani were studied. After reading the whole Ayahs of Surah Yusuf and its translation, every Ayah and its translation in English were carefully analyzed to identify CSIs and the strategies used by the translator to translate them into English. After that, the classification of CSIs by Newmark (1988) has been accepted as the theoretical framework of this study aimed at analyzing culture-specific items. For the clarification, each procedure is interpreted and demonstrated with illustrations in Tables 1-9.

7.3 Analysis and Discussion
After the categorizing the culture-specific items according to Newmark’s strategies, the researcher worked on the strategies for translating the culture-specific items applied in Surah Yusuf, including transference, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, through translation, modulation and notes; Then, he arranged the data gained in Tables 1-9 in order to show the cases of applying Newmark’s strategies for translating the culture-specific items.
The discussion section is devoted to the interpretation of each selected culture-specific word, the researcher presents a discussion of how he formulates the CSIs in Newmark strategies.
Below are the discussion points created for using each strategy;

7.3.1 Transference: Transference includes transliteration and is the same as what is called transcription. The word then becomes a loan word. There were words that were transferred from the source text to the target text. These are presented in the following table.
Table1.

Here are some examples of Transference applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yusuf:

Strategy Source Text Target Text
قرُۡءٰنًا Quran
ابِۡرٰہيِۡمَ Ibrahim
Transference يعَۡقوُۡب Yaqub
اِسۡحٰق Ishaq
يَتَّ قوُۡنَ Taqwa

Words that have given in table 1 are transference words because these are conveyed to target language which is a different language writing system then from the source language, For example, the word Quran is transliterated word and pronounce as same as like in source language قرُۡءٰنًا, so it is transcripted and also become a loan word. Similarly, all the mentioned words in table 1 are transference words.
7.3.2. Cultural Equivalent: Cultural equivalent purpose is to replace a cultural word in the source language with an, although not completely synonymous, target language word.

Table 2.
Examples of Cultural equivalent applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
اٰلِ يعَۡقوُۡب House of Yaqub
لَحٰفِظُوۡنَ Guard
بِثمََنٍ ۢ بَخۡسٍ Paltry price
درََاہمَِ مَعۡدوُۡدةٍَ Silver coin
اشَُدَّ هٗ Prime age
Cultural Equivalent مَعَاذَ ّٰ Master
الۡعَزِيۡزِ Minister
فَاسۡتجََابَ Prayer
اِنِ الۡحُکۡمُ Sovereignty
يٰصَاحِبَیِ السِّجۡن Prisoners
الۡمَلِکُ King
يَعۡصِرُوۡنَ Juice
مَ َّ کنَّ ا Power

In Surah Yusuf, we have some words that are related to the cultural equivalent, Table 2 contains cases where cultural equality is applied. The word House of Yaqub is not completely synonymous to the ST اٰلِ يعَۡقوُۡب, it is a replaced word in the SL. The word minister is not completely synonymous to the word ST word الۡعزَِيۡزِ. Similarly, the word Master in the TT is not synonymous to the word which is used in the ST ّٰ مَعَاذَ, it is a replaced word. The original meaning of the word فَاسۡتجََابَ is to accepted, but here it is referred to Prayer which is not only the synonymous but also a replaced one; furthermore, all the words mentioned in table 2 are mostly not completely synonymous words but the cultural replacing words.

7.3.3 Functional Equivalent:In functional equivalent, the word culture-free is used,
sometimes with a specific term; Therefore, it generalizes the word SL.

Table3.

Examples of Functional equivalent applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
الۡقَصَصِ Narration
رَايَۡتُ Dream
Functional equivalent الۡاحََادِيۡثِ Events
ال َّ س َّ يارَةِ Wayfares
مِّصۡرَ Egypt
يمَۡکُرُوۡنَ Devices

In functional equivalent, culture-free words are used, sometimes a new specific term is used which generalizes the SL word. For example, in table 3 the word Events is used as a cultural free word that generalizes the ST الۡاحََادِيۡثِ. The word Devices is a cultural free word and used as a new specific term to generalize the ST word يَمۡکُرُوۡنَ. The word Narration is used in the TT as a cultural free word because it is not limited or bound to a single culture. The word narration can be used by every culture representative.
7.3.4 Descriptive Equivalent: It is using phrases in TT to explain the ST word.
Table4.
Examples of Descriptive equivalent applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
کَوۡکَبًا Stars
ال َّ شمۡسَ Sun
الۡقمََرَ Moon
Descriptive equivalent عِشَاءًٓ And at Nightfall
وَارِدہَمُۡ Water drawer
سِکِّيۡنً Knife
الۡکِتٰبِ Enlightening book
ال َّ سمٰوٰتِ Heaven

The descriptive equivalent is, using phrases in TT to explain the ST word. For example Eleven stars and the sun and the moon a phrase used in the TT which explains کَوۡکَبًا َّ و ال َّ شمۡسَ وَ الۡقمََرَ the ST words stars, sun and moon. Similarly, Enlightening the book is a phrase used in the target text which highlights the meaning of الۡکِتٰبِ.
7.3.5 Componential Analysis:componential analysis is the initial comparison of a source language point to a selected language point that has the same meaning, but does not equate to one.
Table5.
Examples of Componential analysis applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
رَايَۡتُ Dream
ال َّ طيۡرُ Birds
Componential analysis وَ يَلۡعَبۡ Play
يَعۡصِرُوۡنَ Juice
مَعَاذَ ّٰ ِ Master
يٰصَاحِبَیِ السِّجۡنِ Prisoners
اِنِ الۡحُکۡمُ Sovereignty

Further, in justification in the translation of CSIs, the researcher analyzed the words that comparing the word base of a source language with the target language point that has the same meaning, but obviously not equals one. Like رَايَۡتُ means to look or see while translating it to the TT it meanings changes to word Dream. The basic comparison of these two words is the same.
That is both words are related to cognition and eyes. For instance, other words are ال َّ طيۡرُ Birds, اِ نِ الۡحُکۡمُ Sovereignty.
7.3.6 Synonymy: Synonymy is a near target language equivalent.
Table 6.
Examples of Synonymy applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
الۡکِتٰبِ Book
قۡتلُوُا Kill
ارَۡضًا Earth
Synonymy الذِئّۡبُ Wolf
دلَۡوَه Bucket
خَمۡرًا Wine
يٰبسِٰتٍ Dry

The translator has used good equivalents for the words chosen in the Surah Yusuf. For instance, الۡکِتٰبِ Book, Book in the TT and الۡکِتٰبِ in the ST are the synonymous word. Few other examples are mentioned in table 6.
7.3.7 Through translation:Through-translation, is a literal translation of common conflicts, names of organizations and compound parts. It can also be called: click or loan translation.
Table7.
Examples of Through-translation applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
اٰلِ يعَۡقوُۡبَ House of Yaqub
غَيٰبَتِ الۡجُبِّ Into the bottom of a pit
بِرَحۡمَتِنَا Mercy
Through Translation الۡاحََادِيۡثِ Events
ُّ يسۡجَنَ Prison
الۡعَزِيۡزِ Governor
الۡخَائِٓنيِۡنَ Betray
وَ ل َّ مَا فَتحَُوۡا Family

In through translation, the researcher found those words which have common collocations, name of organization or component of compounds in Surah Yusuf. Examples of through translations are House of Yaqub, اٰلِ يعَۡقوُۡبَ is a component of the compound, Family وَ ل َّ مَا فَتحَُوۡا is the name of the organization, other examples are mentioned in table 7.
7.3.8 Modulation: Modulation occurs when the translator generates the original text message in TL text according to the current target language norms, as source language and target languages may differ visually.
Table8.
Examples of in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf Modulation applied
Strategy Source Text Target Text
يمَۡکُرُوۡنَ Devices
Modulation لَسٰرِقوُۡنَ Thieves
مَ َّکنَّ ا Power
وَ قَدَّ تۡ Ripped

The modulation occurs in the translation of culture-specific items when we are translating the word or phrase from the source text to target text according to the new norms and traditions in TT culture. For instance, Devices are the word that had been translated from the Arabic word يمَۡکُرُوۡنَ which means to plan something while in English it is opposite which means tools.
7.3.9 Notes: Notes, additions, and glosses are additional information that a translator must add to the version; The additional information that translators add is usually cultural.
Table9.
Examples of Notes applied in translating CSIs in Surah Yousaf
Strategy Source Text Target Text
اِنِ الۡحُکۡمُ Sovereignty
Notes تعَۡبدُوُۡنَ Worship
ال َّ شيۡطٰنُ Satan
بِثمََنٍ ۢ بَخۡسٍ Paltry price

In this strategy, the translator adds some additional information to his version, The additional information that translators add is usually cultural. For example اِنِ الۡحُکۡمُ is a word which means that giving the order is limited or quality related to Al-Mighty God while the translator used the word sovereign which means authority. Worship is a word which means to follow or obey someone, the translator can use it in his point of view while in Arabic تعَۡبدُوُۡ نَ which means a quality limited to God.

===Conclusion and Recommendations===

8. Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter summarizes the findings of the study. It also provides some recommendations regarding the application of translation procedures in translation between language systems.

8.1 Summary of the Findings

The translator applied nine translation procedures out of seventeen of Newmark’s translation procedures in the translation of the Surah Yusuf of the Holy Quran, namely, transference, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, through translation, modulation and notes. The cultural equivalent strategy was the most frequent applied procedure. The descriptive equivalent and through translation procedure was the second most frequently applied translation procedure, It was followed by transference, functional equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, modulation and notes. It is a descriptive study in which CSIs from ST translated to TT.

8.2 Conclusion

The present study purpose was to explore the CSIs in Surah Yusuf of the Holy Quran and to investigate which translation strategy proposed by Newmark (1988) were employed by the translator to overcome culture-specific items. Obviously, the researcher has worked hard to clear the way for future students of translation. Throughout the research, the researcher faced a lot of challenges and findings were revealed, some of them are the following;

• Between Arabic and English, there is a big cultural gap. Till now, this problem is considered as an unsolvable problem.

• Lack of reading and translating religious books.

• Many mistakes are made by the translators because they were unknown to the ST.

• The translators have to go through or review the previous translation of the Quranic scripture to solve the problem that they might face in the process of their translation.

The procedures used in this study will help the translator to render culture-specific terms accurately. Thus, the researcher worked well to fill the linguistic gaps between Arabic and English. Furthermore, Newmark’s translation procedures helped the translator make the translation sound more natural to the TR. It can be observed from the analysis that Newmark’s translation procedures were effective in translating the Islamic texts. The findings of the study might help students of translation and practitioners in the field of TS to get familiar with the most influential strategies in rendering cultural specific items. They can use the findings of the study to employ translation tasks in translations. Educational planners can use the findings of this study to specify the most influential, dominant strategies to conduct a target-oriented/sourceoriented translation. To sum up, it should be emphasized that the focus of this particular study was on religious genre. Investigating CSIs in different genres could lead to new areas of research for interested researchers. Accordingly, the information gained from this study may prove useful to translators, translation teachers, and student learners as it will help them improve their translation skills with the special attention of culture-specific items and will allow them Give texts when having a broad view of translation. Other researchers can derive similar effects from many of the findings of the same study.

This study is similar to other studies that might have several limitations which need to be taken into account. The study focused on one Surah translated by one translator. Examining different Surahs of the Holy Quran and their translations by other authors from different cultures might lead to interesting facts or they might confirm the findings of this study. Different translators might employ different strategies. Further research is needed to confirm or disconfirm the findings of this study. Newmark's strategies are not limited to the cultural features of the language. But it also covers the linguistic specifications. To narrow down the subject of the study, the linguistic aspects of the text were ignored. Comparing these linguistic aspects could be another interesting topic and venue for further research.
Finally, It may be concluded that Newmark’s translation procedures are necessary for the translation of an Islamic text between two different language systems and cultures. However, the translator must be competent in using the translation procedures to provide an accurate translation.

8.3 Recommendations

The researcher furnished a set of recommendations in the light of the findings reached and the results obtained. The recommendations can make a helpful set of guidelines for both existing and potential translators in general and for translating religious texts of two languages that are not closely related. These recommendations are tentative and are subject to modification upon closer investigation by translation scholars and professionals:

• The researcher recommends that the study of translation procedures should be included in the university curriculum for students who study translation, to help them in solving the problems of translating religious texts.

• It is recommended for translastors to use the translation procedures appropriately in order to deliver the meaning of the source text correctly.

• The researcher also recommends examining the application of other kinds of translation procedures on Islamic texts based on other models such as Andrew Chesterman’s translation procedures.

• It would also be beneficial to investigate Newmark’s translation procedures to various types of texts such as medical texts and journalistic texts.

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Valipoor, K., & andAzizeh Chalak, H. H. T. (2019). Cultural-specific items in translation of the Holy Quran by Irving: 43-51.

Venuti, L. (1995). The translator’s invisibility: A history of translation. London and New York:
Routledge

Widiarto, O. V. V. (2016). The translation procedures of cultural expressions applied in a game of thrones translated into Perebutan Tahta novel by Barokah Ruziati (Doctoral dissertation, Dian Nuswantoro University).

=Zohaib Chand AN INTRODUCTION TO TRANSLATION STUDIES: AN OVERVIEW Intan Pradita=

[[Trans_Type_EN_12]]

===Abstract===
This study aims to observe the development of translation studies through its different types, various strategies, styles and particular methods. In this paper, the readers are introduced to some famous translation scholars including their view of translation studies. At the further discussions, this study lets the readers acknowledge the main issues on translation studies, focusing on different styles of variations such as grammar, sentence structure, textual analysis, strategies and methods. This study may help those who are interested to conduct translation researches and help them by giving options of which theories is beneficial to their analysis. Moreover, it aims to explore the clear definition of translation as well as help the readers to understand the basic concept which are used in the field of translation. The present study, therefore, attempts to outline the scope of the discipline of translation studies and more importantly, it is an attempt to outline its activity that required a deep mastering of language, a good source of knowledge and target cultures.

===Key words ===
Translation, styles of variations, strategies

===Introduction ===
It is undoubtedly right that translation is important to share information. In line with these premise, the number of translation professionals is getting higher. In fact, the result of translation researches tends to help human daily life in term of evaluation, designing translator machines, and cultural studies. Therefore, translation means converting written information from one language into another. It is the new discipline appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The term “Translation Studies” was coined by James S. Holmes, an American-Dutch poet and translator of poetry, in his seminal paper “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”. Translation enables effective communication between people around the world. It is a courier for the transmission of knowledge, a protector of cultural heritage, and essential to the development of a global economy. Translation helps us to know about the developments in the field of creative arts, education, literature, business, science and politics. It has shifted from the traditional conception of the fixed, stable and unchangeable nature of the text and its meaning to a text with wide scope for variations. Translation also helps in nation building. In this globalised world, the demand for translation and language related services has increased many times. Translation is not only needed for the creation of national identity but has also become an essential tool for keeping pace with the processes of globalization and localization. The activity of translation has a long-standing tradition and has been widely practiced throughout history, but in our rapidly changing world its role has become of paramount importance. Nowadays, knowledge in which cultural exchanges have been widening, has been increasingly expanding and international communication has been intensifying, the phenomenon of translation has become fundamental. Be it for scientific, medical, technological, commercial, legal, cultural or literary purposes, today human communication depends heavily on translation and, consequently, interest in the field is also growing. Accordingly, the discussion, in the present study, proceeds primarily from the perspectives of “Translation Studies” and “Linguistics”. One major goal is to show the interrelationships between linguistics and translation, and how they benefit from each other. Nowadays, translation research has started to take another path, which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the world of cinematographic translation, hence the birth of audiovisual translation. The latter technique, also called screen translation, is concerned with the translation of all kinds of TV programs, including films, series, and documentaries. This field is based on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods; dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a changing era in the domain of translation.
In short, translation has very wide and rich history in the West. Since its birth, translation was the subject of a variety of research and conflicts between theorists. Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality.

Discussion

Translation is an activity that requires deep mastering of languages, a good knowledge of source and target cultures. It is also linked with the translation method, strategies and styles of variations. Each translation type requires different translation method. In this paper, it is an attempt to outline that there are several types of translation. Each type is defined by different scholars through different criteria to the contextual situation of communication. In this paper, we will be writing down the three prominent types of translation through various medium namely; technical translation, literary translation and pragmatic translation. For each type, a selection of examples will be considered for analysis based on translation theories and techniques. We will show that some chunks of text require literal translation, while other requires interpretive method. In addition, this paper will also examine various strategies and its styles of variations based on translational study. The following strategies will be presented in the paper as;

• They involve text manipulation.
• They must be applied to the process.
• They are goal-oriented.
• They are problem-centered.
• They are applied consciously.
• They are inter-subjective.

Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation is not useful. Different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their different perspectives. It intends to show what translation strategies exist and when and why they are used by professional translators. Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of translation, so, they define and describe different types of strategies. Bergen's (n. d.) classification of the strategies includes three categorizations which will be discussed mainly in this paper:

• Comprehension strategies
• Transfer strategies
• Production strategies

An addition to this paper, styles of variations will also be introduced to the readers through different aspects and examples. The concept of style can be defined in terms of the distinctive way an individual or a group uses language, or better still the discourse used to perform distinct functions of language aimed at achieving specific purposes. However, this does not entail that style is simply a matter of form since it is the product of other components such as the genre of discourse, its semantics, syntax and phonology. Indeed, in order to analyze a given stylistic variation one needs an extensive checklist that includes lexical and grammatical categories, allusions, and figures of speech. Style can be understood to refer to the recurring typical features of the source text compared to the typical features of the translated text. In a quantitative and qualitative analysis, this variation is shown to be influenced by several pragmatic and social factors, and to index the interpreters' stances towards source speakers and towards the immigrant court users who are the recipients of translations from English. It is argued that translation styles have profound consequences for limited English speakers, as the insistence on institutional norms in translating to them is viewed as a gate keeping behavior that may impede their full participation in the proceedings.

What is translation?

Translation went through various definitions going from a mere linguistics activity during the sixties, a cultural and communicative activity during the seventies reflects the social impacting activity in the latest founding of the literature.
“Translation is traditionally known as being the replacement of textual material in one language into equivalent textual material in another language”.
House (2015) mentions that translation is considered as the “replacement” of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language. It is strongly related to a source language and target language cultures. It requires a high level of mastery languages, an awareness of any contextual factors within which the discourse emerges. There is no need to mention how it affected civilizations through different areas of mankind history. For example, An Arab-Islamic civilizations. There have always been different directions on how one should or should not translate. In the Arab tradition, two main methods existed and were in complete divergence namely the literal and the free method.
On the other hand, in the Western tradition there are various methods currently exist namely, the linguistic, the hermeneutic, the interpretive, the functionalist, the interventionist, the poly-systemic and the text-typologist method. More so, it may be important to point out that translation has been defined in many ways, and every definition reflects the theoretical approach underpinning it.
As Shuttlworth and Cowie (1997) observe throughout the history of research into translation, the phenomenon has been variously delimited by formal descriptions, echoing the frameworks of the scholars proposing them. For example, Bell (1991: XV) starts with an informal definition of translation, which runs as follows: the transformation of a text originally in one language into an equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as is possible, the content of the message and the formal features and functional roles of the original text.
At the beginning of the ‘scientific’ (Newmark, 1988, p. 2) study of translation, Catford (1965, p. 20) described it in these terms, the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by the equivalent textual material in another language.
Thirty years later, in Germany, the concept of translation as a form of ‘equivalence’ is maintained, as we can see from Koller’s definition (1995, p. 196): “The result of a text processing activity, by means of which a source language text is transposed into a target-language text. Between the resultant text in L2 (the target-language text) and the source text in L1 (the source language text) there exists a relationship, which can be designated as a translational, or equivalence relation”. Because complete equivalence (in the sense of synonymy or sameness) cannot take place in any of his categories, Jakobson (1959) declares that all poetic art is, therefore, technically untranslatable. That is, the translator has to take the question of interpretation into account in addition to the problem of selecting a TL phrase which will have a roughly similar meaning. Exact translation is impossible. In this regard, Bassnett (1996) claims that all texts, being part of a literary system descended from and related to other systems are “translations of translation of translations”: every text is unique and at the same time, it is the translation of another text. No text is entirely original because language itself, in its essence, is already a translation: firstly, of the non-verbal world and secondly, since every sign and every phrase is the translation of another sign and another phrase. However, this argument can be turned around without losing any of its validity: all texts are original because every translation is distinctive. Every translation, up to a certain point, is an invention and as such it constitutes a unique text.
In this analysis of the above definition, Manfredi (2008), points out that the above distinction can be divided into two main perspectives, those that consider translation either as a ‘process’ or a ‘product’. To this twofold categorization, Bell (1991, p. 13) adds a further variable, since he suggests making a distinction between translating (the process), a translation (the product) and translation (i.e., “the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process”. Moreover, thanks to advances in new technologies, today we can also incorporate into TS the contribution of corpus linguistics, which allows both theorists and translators analyses of large amounts of electronic texts (Manfredi, 2008). On the other hand, Halliday (1992, p. 15) takes translation to refer to the total process and relationship of equivalence between two languages; we then distinguish, within translation, between “translating” (written text) and “interpreting” (spoken text). Halliday, thus, proposes distinguishing the activity of “translation” (as a process) from the product(s) of “translating”, including both “translation” (concerning written text) and ‘interpreting’ (regarding spoken text.
“Translation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanding function of the target text.

Types of Translation

Translation is an activity that requires deep mastering of languages, a good knowledge of source and target cultures. It is also linked with the translation method, strategies and styles of variations. Each translation type requires different translation method. In this paper, it is an attempt to outline that there are several types of translation. Each type is defined by different scholars through different criteria to the contextual situation of communication. In this paper, we will be writing down the three prominent types of translation through various medium namely; technical translation, literary translation and pragmatic translation.

Technical translation

Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers, or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information. (Wikipedia)
Translators' main goal is to accurately translate the technical terminology to match the document and the message of the original content.

The benefits of technical translation

A professional technical translation service is provided by translators with dual specialties, that is, professionals who are fluent in the language pair, but who are also experts in the field covered by the documents to be translated.
When you need to have your documents translated by a technical translator, translators who are not experts may not be able to provide the necessary solutions and terminology for a quality translation. If the translator is not an expert in the field, he/she will have to learn the new terminology while working. This means that translation will take longer, have higher chances of inaccuracies, and may result in higher costs. Therefore, the main advantages of hiring an agency specialized in this type of service are as follows:

Literary translation

Literary translation is the translation of creative and dramatic prose and poetry into other languages. This includes the translation of literature from ancient languages and the translation of modern fiction so that it can reach a wider audience.
Literary translation is of huge importance. It helps to shape our understanding of the world around us in many ways. Reading Homer and Sophocles as part of a classical education in school helps to build an understanding of history, politics, philosophy and so much more. Meanwhile, reading contemporary translations provides fascinating insights into life in other cultures and other countries. In a fast-paced world so rife with misunderstanding and confusion, such efforts to share knowledge and experiences across cultural boundaries should be applauded.
The translation of literature differs greatly from other forms of translation. The sheer size of the texts involved in literary translation sets it apart. Tackling a translation that runs to hundreds of thousands of words is not a task for the faint-hearted. Nor is recreating poetry in a new language, without losing the beauty and essence of the original work.
One of the key challenges of literary translation is the need to balance staying faithful to the original work with the need to create something unique and distinctive that will evoke the same feelings and responses as the original. This can be particularly challenging when it comes to translating poetry.
Poems are written with incredible attention to detail. Not only are the words and phrases important, but the number of syllables and the entire rhythm of the completed work. It’s a challenging task to complete just in one language, let alone when trying to recreate a poet’s work during a translation. Daniel Hahn, director of the British Centre for Literary Translation, sums up the issue beautifully.
As literary translators will attest, a single word can be extremely troublesome. The author of a work of fiction has chosen that word for a good reason, so the translator must ensure that it is faithfully delivered in the target language. However, what if no direct translation is available? Or what if several options exist, each with a slightly different nuance? Urdu language translator Fahmida Riaz outlines her approach to such thorny issues.
For instance, “Every piece you translate comes from the pen of an individual, so you have to give it an individual treatment. I try to retain the ambience of the original culture, rather than the language, as it is reflected in the text.”

Pragmatic translation

Pragmatic translation is the basic assumption that provided a source language text contains no misstatements of fact, is competently written and has to be fully translated rather than summarized or functionally reorientated; one's purpose in translating it is to be referentially and pragmatically accurate. In this paper, I shall not deal with referential accuracy but concentrate instead on the pragmatic aspects of translation. As the term pragmatic translation may be used in a variety of ways, I should like to state my own definition of pragmatic, which derives from Charles Morris and ultimately from Charles S. Peirce. I am using pragmatic as one of the two factors in translation: pragmatic denotes the reader's or readership's reception of the translation, as opposed to referential, which denotes the relationship between the translation and the extra-linguistic reality it describes.
Translation is a properly way to a properly communication and pragmatics is how to use language in communication properly. By translation, many things from different languages and cultures can understand to each other. In other words, translation can be stated as a facilitator to make a communication runs well.

===An Overview on Translation Studies ===

===Main Issues in Translation Studies: Equivalence or Variations ===

=== Matthiessen's Parameter on Register Variations===

===Conclusion ===

=== References ===

= Muhammad Numan A Study to Explore the Translation Strategies of Idiomatic Expression from Urdu to English ; A Case Study of Sadat Hassan Manto’s Short Story “Khol Do” =
[[Trans_Type_EN_13]]

===Abstract===
Translation is necessary for developing knowledge and idea, but it also makes the people understand the language and culture of other people or countries. However, equivalence is essential during translation, especially when the translator wants to translate idiomatic expressions in the best possible way. Therefore it is necessary to follow up on some strategies during the translation process. The research work is carried out under the qualitative method with textual analysis techniques as significant. Mona Baker's model for idiomatic expression is explored with the help of different examples from collected data. The primary purpose of this study is to find out which types of strategies are being followed by the translator during the translation process. It was found that translation by paraphrasing, translation by similar words and meaning and translation by similar meaning and different words.
===Key words ===
Translation Strategies, Idiomatic expression, Sadat Hassan Manto, Urdu Literature --[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 09:45, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

===Introduction ===

In this chapter, the researcher wants to highlight the different concepts about the fundamental question "what is idiomatic expression" of different critics, theorists and linguistic experts, and prominent scholars of translation studies. Among them are Lindalorri, Mona Baker, Newmark's, and many more define idioms from their point of view. Secondly, the researcher highlights one of the most prominent literary and short stories writers of the sub-continent Sadat Hassan Manto, his life, literary style, and short stories career. In the last statement of the problem, the objective of the research, which type of strategies was followed in the translation process, purposes of study, and delimitation of studies are explained one by one.

Many critics, theorists, and linguists define idioms differently. However, in general, an idiom is a phrase or expression that typically has a metaphorical, non-literal meaning connected to it. However, phrases can become figurative idioms while keeping the literal meaning of the words. However, according to the Oxford Dictionary of English, a set of words is established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from the meanings of the constituent terms (e.g., over the moon, see the light).

"What is particularly remarkable about idioms is that they can be described in a variety of ways, depending on the roles they fulfilled," writes (Linda Corelli 2006, 8). "A string of words whose meaning differs from the meaning supplied by the individual words" is what an idiom is, according to (Larson 1984, 20). Idioms are "at the end of the scale from collocations in one or both of the areas: flexibility of patterning and transparency of meaning," according to (Baker 1992, 23). Idioms are defined by (Yagihashi 2003, 22) as a "collection of words whose meaning cannot be guessed from their meaning.". According to (Newmark 1981, 11), “Idioms are word groups whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of individual words.”
. The whole meaning of each word that makes up an idiom cannot be considered the idiom's overall meaning. As a result, an idiom should not be translated. To remark that someone is bull-headed, for example, suggests that he or she is obstinate, even though the connotation has nothing to do with the words bull or headed. According to (Corelli 2006, 53), English has a sizeable idiomatic base.
About 4,000 idioms in American English are drawn from the nation's culture and everyday life. Idioms infect English with a peculiar flavor and offer it remarkable diversity, brilliant character, and color. She also feels that idiomatic expressions not only assist language learners in understanding English culture but also penetrating English people's traditions and lifestyles and gaining a deeper understanding of English history.
The main issue that idiomatic and fixed expressions pose for translators, according to (Baker 1992, 65), is twofold: "the ability to recognize and interpret an idiom correctly; and the difficulties involved in rendering the various aspects of meaning that an idiom or a fixed expression conveys into the target language. The first challenge that a translator encounters is understanding that she/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression.

Sadat Husain Manto's writings also include numerous literary criticism, studies in Urdu, and many translations from Urdu into English. He is credited with having brought Urdu language and literature into the mainstream of contemporary international writing. There is no doubt that Sadat Hassan Manto was the most prolific of all modern writers in the sub-continent. Manto's published a substantial number of short stories during his short literary life span, and novelette gave some master piece work to Urdu literature. The noble laureate Hemingway mentions the lunatic life of great Manto's in his speeches. The current research study aims at discovering and determining the strategies used in translations of "khol do" short stories about sexual violence during partition of sub-continent and "license" a short story which throw light on the behavior of society toward widow his profession which lead toward prostitution by Aatesh Taseer an Indian born translator currently living in London having solid links with native country and culture.

===Literature Review ===
In this chapter, the author/researcher defines the strategy and its different definitions from the perspective of different subjects and fields. However, the sole focus is only on the strategy of translation studies. Furthermore, renowned academicians put forward their definition of strategy like Venutti quoted translation strategy as the theory of de construction-sim, which is progressive and future-oriented. Krings defines it as the content of the project, while Seguinet divided the term into three steps. However, Locher defines it as the procedure of solving a problem faced in translating a text. Jaskelaine involves the primary task of choosing the SL text and developed a method to translate it. In last, the author points out his research work's sole purpose by mentioning different research work on Mento's short stories except for this angle.

The term "strategy" is used in a variety of settings. Many theorists in translation studies have used the phrase "translation methods" interchangeably, although with significant distinctions in meaning and perspective. The following is a collection of more general definitions of the term strategy. A strategy is a long-term set of actions to achieve a specific goal (Wikipedia Committee, n. d.).A methodical plan for improving one's learning performance has been actively altered and mentioned (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.)
A strategy is a well-thought-out, intentional, goal-oriented (with a measurable outcome) approach carried out through a series of actions that can be monitored and modified (Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures Glossary, n. d.)
A collection of particular mental and behavioral procedures is taken to reach a given result. These definitions are general and can be related to different fields of study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the definitions mentioned above can be narrowed down to this research field, as well. Translation strategies have their characteristics, through which one can gain a proper understanding of them. In general, a translator employs a strategy when confronted with a challenge while translating a text; nevertheless, translation methods are not required when translating a text literally. Bergen points out that strategies are not always obvious or straightforward.
Although beginners in the field of translation believe they have done a successful translation when they translate word for word and utilize a dictionary, they do not realize that there is still a problem and that adjustments must be made at various levels of the translation. As a result, the most critical purpose of the strategies is to solve problems. "Venuti attempted to put deconstructionist translation theory into practice by proposing the "resistant translation" technique as an alternative to the standard "smooth translation. This technique tries to reverse the colonial concept of translation, English-American culture centralism, and the value of imperialist culture from an ideological standpoint.
It aims to retain "foreignness" rather than seeking similarity in translation principles and methods. The author believes Venuti's translation strategy is quite progressive and future-oriented, with the development of international communications on an equal footing. However, it will take time to implement fully." (Jianzhong. .Krings 1986, 18) defines translation strategy as "a translator's potentially deliberate objectives for solving concrete translation problems specific translation task in the context of a project."The translators adopted three global tactics, according to (Seguinot 1989, 27) (i) translating uninterrupted for as long as possible; (ii) resolving surface flaws as soon as possible; (iii) leaving text quality and stylistic problems to the editing stage.

Furthermore, (Loescher 1991, 8) defines translation strategy as "a possibly conscious technique for overcoming a difficulty encountered in translating a text, or any segment thereof." As stated in this definition, consciousness is vital in distinguishing strategies employed by learners and translators. "The element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these activities that are not strategic," (Cohen 1998, 4) claim moreover, (Bell 1998, 188) distinguishes between global (whole-text) and local (text segment) techniques and indicates that this distinction is the outcome of several types of translation challenges.

According to (Venuti 1998, 240), "involve the core tasks of picking the foreign text to be translated and establishing a way to translate it." He uses the terms "domesticating" and "foreignizing" to describe them. Ordudari, considering the process and outcome of translation, Jaaskelainen divides methods into two primary categories: some strategies deal with what happens to texts, while others deal with what happens during the translation process. According to (Jaaskelainen 2005, 15), product-related strategies entail the essential tasks of selecting the SL content and establishing a technique for translating it. On the other hand, process-related strategies are "a set of (loosely articulated) rules or principles that a translator applies to attain the goals determined by the translating scenario.

Furthermore, (Jaaskelainen 2005, 16) distinguishes between global and local strategies, stating that "global strategies refer to general principles and modes of action, while local strategies refer to specific activities concerning the translator's problem-solving and decision-making. (Newmark 1988, 221) distinguishes between translation methods and translation procedures. (Newmark 1988, 81) also distinguishes between translation techniques and procedures, writing, "While translation methods are employed for full texts, translation procedures are utilized for sentences and smaller units of language."

Apart from other literature like poetry, drams and other subcultures also produce literary genius in short stories. Monto is one of them. His literature is translated into different languages with a different theme in his work. Apart from the story of division, Manto's books are characterized by powerful female characters. Manto combines the physical brutality of division with the intellectual cruelty that sex and sexuality face inside the Indio Pak subcontinent's social framework (Ranjan 2004, 3). Manto's female characters, according to Ispahani, are characterized by their sexual fragilities, such as sexual humiliation, rape, and prostitution. "They are nearly always victims, with the power only to cause their destruction," she believes. Sakina's body movement reveals how severely she was sexually raped. Sakina's silence and pain depict the savagery of her rape to the point where they lost their ability to communicate. Manto's short stories present another perspective on trauma through the absence of the subject converses (Mehta 2018, 9). Bingo by Tariq Rahman explores sexual repression, social injustice, and war tragedies. Wartime rape has existed since the beginning of conflicts, and penetrators consider it one of their weapons of war (Isikozlu, 2016, 13).

The concept of hegemonic binary was introduced by the second wave of feminism, which depicts patriarchal conduct as sexually superior and powerful. At the same time, women are sexually inferior and submissive argue (Marinucci, 2010, 15). Sexual trauma serves as a link between the victim and society; it ruins the victim's sense of safety, leads to low self-esteem, and silences them called by (Lewis 2017, 54). Saadat Hasan Manto (1912-1955) was one of the most well-known, controversial, and provocative Urdu writers of the twentieth century. Despite being a prolific writer of essays, plays, film scripts, and novels, he was best known for his short tales. Born in Punjab, he began his writing career in Bombay before moving to Lahore, Pakistan, in January 1948, a few months after partition (Hasan 1984). Following that, his stories generally centered on a partition, exploring its human effects from various perspectives.

Manto's works are notable for their realism, word economy, dependence on internal components, and, most notably, their abrupt, often distressingly unclear ends (Akhtar and Flemming 1985, 9). While Tariq Rahman wrote Bingo, he is a writer, playwright, and critic who has made significant contributions to Urdu literature through his writing. Research work was carried out on the comparison of "bingo" and "khol do."
The purpose of this thesis is to compare the two short stories Khol Do and Bingo, both of which focus on women and violence, particularly wartime rape, which makes women more vulnerable than ever before. This paper explores how women are victims of war and partition, making them doubly marginalize primarily due to the hegemonic binaries of men and women. Both of the stories aim to reflect the stigmata of our society regarding the violence and cruel treatment of women since their existence. Furthermore, via the lenses of feminism and post-colonialism, it examines how varied wartime weapons can be for both gender binaries. The writers' audacity causes us to reflect on the inhumane treatment of women in everyday life and even in wartime when they are with the men who are supposed to defend the female.
Several research articles are found on translated work (license and khol do) of Urdu famous short stories writer Sadat Hassan Manto's from a different perspective like psychoanalysis, postcolonial, feminist approaches but to explore the problem of translations strategies face by translator Aatish Taseer during the process of translation has not been mention till date. To summarize this, the research includes a critical, in-depth, comprehensive analysis of issues that previously did not address.

=== Theoritical Framework ===

Different strategies have been used, like using an idiom of similar meaning and similar form, the idiom of similar meaning and different form, translation by Paraphrasing, translation by omission. The approach of employing idioms of similar meaning and form, according to Mona Baker, entails using an idiom in the target language that can express about the same meaning as the source language idiom, as well as having lexical similarity. On the other hand, this type of matching happens periodically as well as regularly.

Similarly, employing idioms with similar meanings but different forms means that it is possible to locate an idiom or fixed expression in the target text language that has a similar meaning to the source idiom or expression but is made up of distinct lexical elements. Consider the case of English and French, both of which use the idiom mentioned above. In English, one good deed is rewarded with another, whereas in French, handsome deeds are rewarded with handsome deeds.

Furthermore, we did not come across any idioms in the category mentioned above during translating idioms. To deal with this issue, the translators used the most popular approach, known as a translation by paraphrase, which is short, straightforward, and time-saving. When a match cannot be identified in the target language or when it appears improper to employ idiomatic language in target material due to aesthetic differences between the source and target languages, this is the most typical approach for translating an idiom from source to target language. However, one thing to keep in mind is that a perfect translation is not required is necessary or possible.

Last but not least, to overcome the problem of idiom translation, the translator employs the strategy of translation by omission. This can be defined as an idiom being omitted entirely in the target text with a single word. This is done because the idiom has no close match in the target language; its meaning cannot be easily paraphrased or due to stylistic reasons.

Data analysis Techniques:
Textual analysis is the method of data analysis in qualitative research that brings forth the hidden and potent message, structure, and function of research in giving text, Alan Mckee (defines textual analysis as whenever we perform textual analysis on the text, we make an educated guess at some time of the most likely interpretations that might be made of that text (Alan Mckee 2001, 3)
Analysis of the translation of short stories in light of Mona baker's theory "khol do and license" are short stories written by Sadat Hassan Manto and translated by many translators from Urdu into English. During translation, the translator adopted many strategies for translating idiomatic expression, sometimes by Paraphrasing, sometimes by omission, sometimes using similar idioms of form and meaning while sometimes using different words and the same form, the whole.
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 09:51, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

===Discussion and Analysis===

The chapter analyzes and discusses all the data collected by the author/researcher from different sources. All the examples of idioms are first identified, then translated into the target text, and back-translated for the sole purpose of exploring the strategies being used by the translator. A separate section is given to every strategy with its related example. Moreover, the idiomatic expression, the target work for finding, is highlighted through the bold letter.

4.1 Translation by Paraphrasing:

Based on our findings, the most often used strategy was "translation by paraphrasing." An inspection also reveals that Aatish Taseer preferred this strategy. Here are some examples applied by the translators, and in the following section, the logic behind their preference towards this strategy is elaborate. The following are examples from two short stories of Sadat Husain Manto's "khol do" and "license."
Example 1:

ST: Sirajuddin ne subah das baji anki kholi to logo ka ail mutalatam samandar deka.

TT: Ten a.m., Siraj Uddin opens his eyes on the cold floor of the camp, seeing the swelling sea of men.

BT: sub ke das baji jab Sirajuddin ne apni anki koli to logo ka aik ublaha howa samandar ka nizara dekni laga.

So, the above idioms are literal idioms being translated with the help of Paraphrasing because there is no perfect equivalent of mutalatam words in English languages. A similar look at another idiom from short stories "khol do."

Example 2:

ST: Khuda tomahra bala kari.

TT: Your God will reward

BT: Is ka badla khoda tomahi di.

Here, the word reward is being used for Bala Kari, an example of transitional by Paraphrasing.
Let take another example from "khol do."

Example 3:

ST: unkho nai Jan khateli pa rak kar sakena ko donda.

TT: even putting their lives online, they search sakina

BT: apni zindagio ko khatri me dal kar unkho nai sakina ko dond nekala.

The above idioms are examples of pure idiom translated from Urdu into English with the help of paraphrases strategies. However, under the same strategies, the idioms of another short story of Manto,s "license," are translated by Aatish Taseer. Some of the examples are given below.

Example 4:

ST: Abu kochwan bara cheel jabela ta. It is the binomial type of idioms taken from the first sentence of the short story "license" by Sadat
Hasan Manto

TT: Abu kochwan is stylish man.

BT: Abu kochwan aik wazahdar admi ta.

From the above idiom, it is clear that there is no perfect equivalence of cheela chabela idiom in English; that is, the translator goes
through paraphrasing strategies. Look at another example from "license."

Example 5:

ST: Lein har waqat bank bani rekhi ka usi be had showk ta

TT: He had a weakness for style and fashion.

BT: Dan saj ke rekhna uski kamzori me sai ik ta.

So all of the above examples, which are analyzed one by one, are examples of idioms being translated through paraphrasing strategies. (De Beaugrande and Dressler 1981, 50) define paraphrases as "approximate conceptual equivalence among outwardly different material." Similarly, in this regard, Hirst defines paraphrases as "talk(ing) about the same situation in a different way." Munday declared that "equivalence is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs” For instance, if the English idiom like a bear with a sore head is rendered into Persian as (mesle borje zahremar), meaning like a tower of snake venom, the strategy of equivalence has been applied.

According to Leonardi, "Equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation." In this regard, house believes that "a translation text should match not only its source text in function but also employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function" (Baker 2002, 49). who shares this approach, states that equivalence is used "for the sake of convenience—because most translators are used to it rather than because it has any theoretical status" (Kenny 1998, 77).

Despite different attitudes to the concept of equivalence, most specialists pay much attention to its meaning in the theory of translation. The translation is a form of communication, and that is why it is vital to establish equivalence between the source text and the target text. Although Vinay and Darbelnet believe that equivalence is used differently than in modern translation theory, it is evident that equivalence is one of the basic concepts of translation that cannot be neglected. Consequently, based on the Above mentioned studies using Paraphrasing in translation stands as the core concept in the process of translation, and still, most of the translators cling to it for producing a more comprehensible and explicable text. These language ideas and translation models are ideal constructs, presented abstractly in order to be differentiated precisely. They may exist in an uneasy combination in actual theories and practices, resulting in logical tensions or inconsistencies. They must first contribute to any explanation or interrogation of the situation before they can contribute to any explanation or interrogation of the situation. Theories and actions must be contextualized in historical settings. They've been utilized as analytical tools to describe various topics in section introductions. Theoretical writings and current events these language notions and translation models are ideal constructs expressed in an abstract manner in order to be distinguished precisely in real-life hypotheses they may exist in an uncomfortable mix, resulting in logical conflicts or inconsistencies. They must first contribute to any explanation or interrogation of the situation before they can contribute to any explanation or interrogation of the situation.

4.2 Using an idiom of Similar Meaning and Form

As mentioned earlier, this strategy type is being used by Aatish Taseer during their translated work of Manto's short stories "khol do" and" license" on an occasional basis. Some examples are mention below.

From khol do.

Example 6:

ST: Larki ka rang zard hogaya.

TT: The girl's face became fail

BT: larki ka rang zar hogya.

Similarly, another example from the license is

Example 7:

ST: Abu our us ke mat beer hogaie

TT: They fall in love with each other.

BT: WO ik dosri ke mokhbat me geriftar hogaie

The above idioms are pure ones and are being translated with the help of similar meanings and similar forms.

The procedures: transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation, and when it comes to defining the term Equivalence, (Vinay and Darbelnet 2000, 90) propose that it consists in rendering "the same situation … by two texts using completely different stylistic and structural methods", and when it comes to translating idiomatic expressions like "Il pleut à seaux" it can be translated as "It is raining cats and dogs" using the idiom of similar form and meaning in the target language.

As (Baker 1992, 12) states, this strategy involves using an idiom in the TL which conveys roughly the same meaning as that of the source language idiom and, in addition, consists of identical lexical items. The salient point is that this kind of match can only occasionally be achieved, which cannot be picked up more often by translators. Accordingly, both translators mentioned in the current study had quite a slim chance of using this strategy type.

4.3 Using an idiom of similar meaning but different form:

During translating Manto short stories, "khol do" and "license," some of the idioms are translated with the help of this strategy. Some of the examples are given below from two different short stories.

Example number one is from the short story "khol do"

Example 8:

ST: Aur bolwai gos ayai thee?

TT: The roitors come abroad.

BT: pasadi bahar agai hai.

The above idiom is a pure type of idiom being translated with the help of above mention strategy. The word rioter is being used for bolwai, which is not a perfect word for bolwai. In Urdu bolwai, people believe in violence when minorities or the low population of any country want some rights. These people stop them by using violence, burn down their properties, rapes women, and do things like that. Another example from the license is below.

Example 9:

ST: Dosri kotwal abu ko dek kar jal ban ho jati.

TT: The other coachman burn with envy.

BT: Abu ke kamyabi dek kar aur kotwal abu sai khasad karni lagi’

The above idioms are a pure idiom that reflects the effect of jealousy between competitors to achieve equivalency. Aatish Taseer uses envy word for jal ban instead of other which have similar meaning but different form. Look at the other example from "license."

Example 10:

ST: Dino lat vo lagal se kam karni laga.

TT: Dino came with an excuse.

BT: Dino abb bahi tarashni laga.

The above idioms are types of binomial idioms translated with the help of idioms with similar meanings and different forms. (Newmark 1988, 81) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that "[w]hile translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" (Newmark 1988, 81). Idiomatic translation in his definition reproduces the 'message' of the original. However, it distorts nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original, leading to using an idiom of similar meaning but a different form. Besides, it is often possible to find an idiom or fixed expression in the target language with a meaning similar to that of the source idiom or expression but which consists of different lexical items (Baker 1992, 12). Therefore, translators discover idiomatic expressions in the target language with different forms than in the source language. In the current study, the translators approached this strategy merely for 9% of the total times, which means the frequency of Iranian and English idioms with the same meaning and different forms is not considered high.

4.4 Translation by omission:

A translator is less using these strategies, and we did not find any clue on this type of strategy in an area under consideration.
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 09:48, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Findings===

(Mandelbit 1995) believed that idioms with different cognitive mapping in the target language would be more challenging to translate. After conducting study and data analysis of collected data, the result revealed that the translator frequently used three out of four strategies of the Mona Baker model during the translation process, which is a translation by Paraphrasing, translation by similar meaning and similar form, translation by similar meaning and different form. In contrast, translation by omission does not found in his work.
After detail and careful analysis of data, more than half of idioms like "swelling sea of man,” my lord break his arrogance, “weakness for style and fashion." As I mentioned earlier, many more are translated under the umbrella of Paraphrasing, which is considered the most common method used for translating idioms.

Similarly, we also reflect strategies like similar meaning and different form and similar meaning and similar form. The idiom "rioter came abroad,” burn with envy,” The girl's face became pale, " They fall in love with each other" are translated with the help of two mention strategies, respectively.

Although translation by omission is a strategy used on rare occasions because of its meaning, its meaning cannot be easily paraphrased or stylistic reason. Here, the researcher also did not find any idiom translated with the help of the omission strategy.

===Conclusion ===

Go through detailed discussion and analysis of data collected from my source. We finally concluded that the idioms present in two short stories, "khol do" and "License," are translated under the frame of Mona Baker's idiomatic model. Translation by Paraphrasing is mainly used while idioms of similar meaning and form and idioms of similar meaning and different forms are used occasionally. The researcher discusses all the strategies with related examples in the order of maximum used to minimum used. The strategy by omission did not find it works. All the data are collected from different sources and analyzed with the help of different researcher tools, and the result is written in light of the finding. Different from previous studies, the writer presents the strategies to translate idioms by each type of idiomatic expression found in the story. From the result, it is considered the translation of idiomatic expressions in the story is quite accurate. As the number of accurate data is more the data which is not related to the translation. We take conclusion from the translation through idiomatic expression and paraphrasing is the best way to translate a novel or a story however it is very difficult job to do because it needs more accurate and precise knowledge about the source language and an inspiring method to express ideas in the target language. However, translation is thing through which we can connect the world with each other and also we can study and observe diverse cultures.

=== References ===
Abu-Saydeh, A. F. (2004). Translation of English idioms into Arabic. Babel, 114-131.

Ahsan, S. (2020). A comparative study of two translations of manto's short story "Toba Tek". International Journal of English Language Studies, 12-27.

Alexander, R. J. (1987). Mimeograph. In R. J. Alexander (Ed.) Collocation and Culture. Trier: University of Trier, West Germany.

Al-Qinai, J. (2000). Translation quality assessment. strategies, parameters and procedures. Translator's Journal, 497-519.

Bayashi, J. (2020). Japanese-English translation: An advanced guide. Oxfordshire: Routledge.

Das, V. &. (1995). Critical events: An anthropological perspective on contemporary India. New Delhi: Oxford Printing Press.

Mufti, A. (2007). The Language of English India. In I. &. End (Ed.) Enlightenment in the Colony. Princeton University Press.

Waka Xia, L. (2019). A discourse analysis of news translation in China. Syydney: Routledge.

= Muhammad Saqib Mehran Problems in Translation Study =
[[Trans_Type_EN_14]]

===Abstract===

===Key words ===

===Introduction ===

===Ambiguity===

===Lexical and Structural Mismatches===

===Multiword units: Idioms and Collocations===

===Summary===

===Further Reading===

=刘胜楠 A Case Study of ''Ne Zha'' on Subtitle Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Skopos Theory=
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