China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T07:35:20Z

Mashuya: /* Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
相比之下，鲁迅用悲伤的笔调描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中讽刺地写道—他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。据说较少参与政治的朱自清在这里表现出更多的参与。
文章《面对新中国》是朱自清的政治体现：他要求民主，启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

相比之下，鲁迅则用低吟隐晦的笔调描绘了同一场大屠杀，同样，周作人在其作品《死法》中讽刺地写到他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死法。由此观之，大众所言极少参与政治活动的朱自清实际上很大程度投身于其中。

文章《新中国在望中》是朱自清政治立场的体现：他提倡民主，呼吁启蒙，倡导提高教育水平。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:

散文的发行于1920年至1930年达到繁盛主要原因在于新杂志的出现。新杂志成为了当代散文家以及散文丛书的载体。

散文发行量不断上升的原因，可以追溯到“文化大革命”时期的大清洗，造成了需求的积压。1980至1982年间印刷了一百万册散文集便很好的反映了上述观点。而这一数据仅包含于我为了调查而收录的130本代表性书目的样本中。20世纪90年代中期，中国散文盛行的原因有三点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

在本世纪末，位于排行榜前列的不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的文章位于前列。尤其是从1923年到1928年，大部分非政治性文章可以追溯到共和党时代。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。在1949年以后的政治论文中，排名较高的有批评文章。在中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常选择的论文中，道德和美学标准似乎已成为基础话题。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 06:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.

这些注释与经典文学的不同之处在于它的非正式文体、个性与主体性的表现，其关于主体性的记载比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》更早。
从一开始,这篇文章的价值被认为低于诗歌:我在罗大經(?1240- 1248年)中发现了最古老的参考术语“散文”(?从1240年- 1248年之后)声明:“诗骚妙天下，而散文颇觉琐碎局促。”--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.

当周作人表明在马可波罗桥事件发生仅七个月后，又有可能写出一个糖果卖主（1924年）时，他被人批评为“瘫痪者”（鲁迅1934年，朱兆罗1943年）。当他写了一篇关于“苍蝇”的文章时，他在处理次要主题上受到指责。由于边际主义对论文是实质性的，因此这种谴责在于该类型的本质。提到的罗大经的正式谴责可以在1990年代再次发现。香港学生批评巴金斯的《思想》（Suixiang lu）中出现的文学风格太过直接和太过狡猾。但是这种观点并没有认识到本文的本质，它是作者思想的一种非常个性化的表达，并不局限于传统，因此在内容上也更加自由。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:32, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于其作品的文学品质，而在于政治价值。中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要理论叙述是，周作人是五四天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的杂志《回忆录》和《中国文学》上发表的著作中，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作者张爱玲从来没有因为合作而受到指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

面对“祖先崇拜”中的传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只能通过变化才能变成现在(周1919：7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦德·丽贝卡(Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecca，1767-1830)是一位法国小说家和自由主义政治家，除了法国大革命后的艺术自由外，他还呼吁引入以英国模式为基础的君主立宪制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:39, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

乡愁是汪曾祺《家乡的野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此可以说，动人的散文构成了上。

- 在90年代后半期，在日趋形式化但实质上空虚的城市生活中，作者自己似乎也迷失在个体的主体性和日常的亵渎性与平庸性中。时间失去了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动被机械和自闭的行为所充斥。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).

另外像1993年以来的小说（贾平凹、飞渡；顾城、莺歌）和1995年以来的《新无界》中发现的普通语言的使用趋势，也不能在散文写作中得到证明。

- 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾、沈从文身上看到的小说现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的，其中之一是1981年巴金写的《小狗包弟》，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述式的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但除开可能会变得狂热和具有挑衅性的危险外，我想就散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位提些问题。
人们很少有时间去阅读，并且习惯于网上简略的可视信息。散文的精简会使其成为一个理想的媒介么？--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但出于狂妄和挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。

- 人们阅读等行动的时间少了，也习惯了通过网络减少视觉化的信息。散文的简洁性是否会使其成为理想的媒介？--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它生长于现有文学之中，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次的德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:03, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化的综合体，它展示着中国文化的精髓并极具全球影响力，因此它应该被列入世界记忆文献遗产名录。
关键词
西方文化，传统保护，德国翻译，中国文化具像化表现，全球兼容，世界遗产文献
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

这些梦讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。不幸的恋人也有西方文学的传统,他们构成一个原型,如英雄和利安得、皮拉摩斯和提斯柏,特里斯坦与伊索尔德,凝花和Blanscheflur特洛伊罗斯和克雷西达,后者被认为是阿瑟·布鲁克斯的模型,他在1562年写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,从而直接影响了莎士比亚。
玛丽安·加利克认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明(政府可以打击恐怖主义，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以遏制通奸)。

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿(因为职位相距太远)。

4.民粹主义和民粹主义观点获得支持。

5.社会两极分化。

英译汉有一种动机是不透露一个人对该对象了解多少，因为该对象可能会对合法性、制度等提出质疑。

7.最后要解决的是思维问题：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口惠而实不至的话--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:41, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最具价值的资源。大型科技公司已经利用用户的数据来牟取暴利的同时，与之相关的立法却被推迟，受到数据突破国界（对于科技公司来说没有国界）的挑战。
尽管像欧盟一样以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济仍在保护隐私和数据安全，但中美两国的科技公司已经开始打入欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

新发展提供了新可能。我们需要确保除了少数的技术公司和恐怖分子使用这一强大的新技术来达到他们的目的，还需要确保大量的智能设备的使用者不再沉迷于其中，不再被技术操控，从而重拾尊严，重获隐私和实现意志自由。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T07:32:27Z

Mashuya: /* Ma Shuya 马淑雅 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
相比之下，鲁迅用悲伤的笔调描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中讽刺地写道—他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。据说较少参与政治的朱自清在这里表现出更多的参与。
文章《面对新中国》是朱自清的政治体现：他要求民主，启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:

散文的发行于1920年至1930年达到繁盛主要原因在于新杂志的出现。新杂志成为了当代散文家以及散文丛书的载体。

散文发行量不断上升的原因，可以追溯到“文化大革命”时期的大清洗，造成了需求的积压。1980至1982年间印刷了一百万册散文集便很好的反映了上述观点。而这一数据仅包含于我为了调查而收录的130本代表性书目的样本中。20世纪90年代中期，中国散文盛行的原因有三点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

在本世纪末，位于排行榜前列的不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的文章位于前列。尤其是从1923年到1928年，大部分非政治性文章可以追溯到共和党时代。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。在1949年以后的政治论文中，排名较高的有批评文章。在中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常选择的论文中，道德和美学标准似乎已成为基础话题。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 06:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.

这些注释与经典文学的不同之处在于它的非正式文体、个性与主体性的表现，其关于主体性的记载比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》更早。
从一开始,这篇文章的价值被认为低于诗歌:我在罗大經(?1240- 1248年)中发现了最古老的参考术语“散文”(?从1240年- 1248年之后)声明:“诗骚妙天下，而散文颇觉琐碎局促。”--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.

当周作人表明在马可波罗桥事件发生仅七个月后，又有可能写出一个糖果卖主（1924年）时，他被人批评为“瘫痪者”（鲁迅1934年，朱兆罗1943年）。当他写了一篇关于“苍蝇”的文章时，他在处理次要主题上受到指责。由于边际主义对论文是实质性的，因此这种谴责在于该类型的本质。提到的罗大经的正式谴责可以在1990年代再次发现。香港学生批评巴金斯的《思想》（Suixiang lu）中出现的文学风格太过直接和太过狡猾。但是这种观点并没有认识到本文的本质，它是作者思想的一种非常个性化的表达，并不局限于传统，因此在内容上也更加自由。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:32, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于其作品的文学品质，而在于政治价值。中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要理论叙述是，周作人是五四天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的杂志《回忆录》和《中国文学》上发表的著作中，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作者张爱玲从来没有因为合作而受到指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

面对“祖先崇拜”中的传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只能通过变化才能变成现在(周1919：7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦德·丽贝卡(Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecca，1767-1830)是一位法国小说家和自由主义政治家，除了法国大革命后的艺术自由外，他还呼吁引入以英国模式为基础的君主立宪制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:39, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

乡愁是汪曾祺《家乡的野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此可以说，动人的散文构成了上。

- 在90年代后半期，在日趋形式化但实质上空虚的城市生活中，作者自己似乎也迷失在个体的主体性和日常的亵渎性与平庸性中。时间失去了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动被机械和自闭的行为所充斥。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).

另外像1993年以来的小说（贾平凹、飞渡；顾城、莺歌）和1995年以来的《新无界》中发现的普通语言的使用趋势，也不能在散文写作中得到证明。

- 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾、沈从文身上看到的小说现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的，其中之一是1981年巴金写的《小狗包弟》，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述式的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但除开可能会变得狂热和具有挑衅性的危险外，我想就散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位提些问题。
人们很少有时间去阅读，并且习惯于网上简略的可视信息。散文的精简会使其成为一个理想的媒介么？--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但出于狂妄和挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。

- 人们阅读等行动的时间少了，也习惯了通过网络减少视觉化的信息。散文的简洁性是否会使其成为理想的媒介？--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它生长于现有文学之中，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次的德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:03, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化的综合体，它展示着中国文化的精髓并极具全球影响力，因此它应该被列入世界记忆文献遗产名录。
关键词
西方文化，传统保护，德国翻译，中国文化具像化表现，全球兼容，世界遗产文献
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

这些梦讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。不幸的恋人也有西方文学的传统,他们构成一个原型,如英雄和利安得、皮拉摩斯和提斯柏,特里斯坦与伊索尔德,凝花和Blanscheflur特洛伊罗斯和克雷西达,后者被认为是阿瑟·布鲁克斯的模型,他在1562年写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,从而直接影响了莎士比亚。
玛丽安·加利克认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明(政府可以打击恐怖主义，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以遏制通奸)。

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿(因为职位相距太远)。

4.民粹主义和民粹主义观点获得支持。

5.社会两极分化。

英译汉有一种动机是不透露一个人对该对象了解多少，因为该对象可能会对合法性、制度等提出质疑。

7.最后要解决的是思维问题：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口惠而实不至的话--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:41, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最具价值的资源。大型科技公司已经利用用户的数据来牟取暴利的同时，与之相关的立法却被推迟，受到数据突破国界（对于科技公司来说没有国界）的挑战。
尽管像欧盟一样以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济仍在保护隐私和数据安全，但中美两国的科技公司已经开始打入欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

新发展提供了新可能。我们需要确保除了少数的技术公司和恐怖分子使用这一强大的新技术来达到他们的目的，还需要确保大量的智能设备的使用者不再沉迷于其中，不再被技术操控，从而重拾尊严，重获隐私和实现意志自由。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201221 trans

2020-12-21T13:20:44Z

Mashuya: /* Meng Ying 孟莹 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
通用类别不是杂文倾向于混合的唯一方面；它们的特征通常是音调，风格和声音的突然变化，从一连串的窃窃私语转变为优雅，古典的谈话。与胡适（1918）的杂文思想是对报纸其他页面文章的“回应”一样，杂文仍然是大多数报纸的特色，几乎总是以直接引用作者读过或听过的东西的形式包含“箔”。除了创建微观的社会对话外，在作者和“箔纸”两种声音之间进行的这种划分还使样式和声音产生了令人头晕目眩的冲突，使句法，语法以及思想不可能包含在一个文本中。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然读者讨厌具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的时代杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。他们甚至会保存这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.

看了这位发言者的评论，还有一件事让我感到疑惑。按照这个说法，"从接下来的两年（指今明两年）的纪律和整改来看，会有更多的新挑战、新问题，文艺刊物应该对稳定人心、增强信心有所帮助，而不是消磨人民的意志"。看了这么多报纸，我还是第一次看到这个 "稳定民心 "的命题。如果说要稳定民心，那就必须从民心不稳的假设出发。至于民心不稳的原因，又回到了这两年的 "纪律整顿和新挑战、新问题 "上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

文学报《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应他们的请求。写到这里，我突然觉得，这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字是无法叙述完的。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道，指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写着：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“古物”了，早已没有了往日的繁华与辉煌。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.

最近，我读了刘濛的《雨天的回忆》，写于1958年4月的一个雨天，当时他和一群人一起被送去了北大荒。雨中的月台，雨中的火车头；他故作深沉的回忆道，这记忆也被雨水洗净了。当时的刘濛还很年轻，但是许多和他一起踏上这段旅程的人都陷入了上了年纪的艰辛中，当然每个人都有自己的“早年”经历。

耷拉着头，走在被雨打湿的街道上；这是一位来自远方的旅人。每扇窗户都在哭泣；回忆起在雨中的那个人。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 07:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.

乡愁表现了人类疏远或疏离的一种基本状态，随着当代中国现代化和全球化的进程加快，范围扩大，乡愁也因此加深。对希望保持传统的社会道德守护者或社会良知角色的知识精英和希望维持纯文学与通俗文学区别的文学家来说，这种怀旧情绪他们深有体会。正是这种道德绝对主义和文学精英主义遭到了文化和社会经济变化的破坏。张志强笔下的怀旧主义所揭示的，与其说是对现代化进程的抵触，不如说是未能对中国现代性复杂性做深入的理解。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中将“土地”具体化为一个先验隐喻，这只能说明作者对中国现代性的复杂性缺乏深刻的历史见解。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化的困境和矛盾作为永久固定的知识和文化景观。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判也表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国的后社会主义社会现实变得更加复杂和苛刻，文化形态更加多样化和无组织化，任何基于前现代社会关系和规范的明确的道德解决方案(假定一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程所带来的文化危机感。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 06:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，没有明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实、神话、传说、魔法和故事叙述之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇、神话和超自然的人物和事件:牛根的身体在他真正死亡之前被风吹了一段时间。一个叫金游的人能从乳房里挤出奶来。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成一只青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲喝农药之后却没有死亡;相反，她的头发变得更黑了，皮肤也变的更柔软了。与马尔克斯的《百年孤独》的相似之处在于这些神奇的事件在与其他“真实”事件相同的本体论水平上以现实的方式呈现。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张炜的前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它无法在我们的现代文化条件下想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
所以，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所降临的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).

此外，正如标题所示，整部小说的作者意图是作为一个寓言，而不是历史，尽管它是以历史的模式写的。村庄的神话起源，它缺乏时间观念，以及它突然而灾难性的结局都指向对历史进程的否定。复杂的叙述结构背叛了这个神话般的过去的想象和奇异的构造。因此，张伟笔下的小村庄与其说是一个怀旧的历史对象，不如说是一个想象与乌托邦话语融合的地形/文本场所。换句话说，作为一种文学建构，这个幻影村与其说来自于对已经失去的东西的实际渴望，不如说是来自于对从未存在过的东西的渴望(Wang 1993,130)。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.

明显的不一致说明了怀旧的本质，即既是一种质朴的立场，又是一种感觉的结构。

然而，形式上的复杂性与原始存在之间的不一致是我们后现代主义中国文学和文化生产的一个标志。在讨论第五代电影时，雷伊·周指出，原始主义常常与现代主义/后现代主义有关。按照周的定义，“原始激情”出现在“文化危机时刻”。这是一个虚构的事实，是一种对在建设后发生的原始农村根源的感觉上的虚构（1995，22-23）。周的原始激情理论则是基于她对新中国电影的研究。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.

在那里，他几乎与外界隔绝，希望这种远离现代城市的放逐能让他的精神更接近土地和自然，从而重新感受中国人民的活力，重新发现中国文化的历史根源/乡土根源。正如所有评论家所认同的那样，这部小说对远古世界的再现成功地表现出了一种原始的天真和简单，一种涌动着生命力量和生命力的感觉——这是一种理想的存在形式。然而，在对过去进行去历史化的过程中，为了重新想象乡村那纯真和内涵丰富的黄金时代，作者别无选择，只能简单地在叙事种演绎其历史必然性。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

在那里，他几乎与外界隔绝，希望这种远离现代城市的放逐能让他的精神更为接近土地和自然，从而重新感受中国人民的活力，重新发现中国文化的历史根源/乡土根源。正如所有评论家所认同的那样，这部小说对远古世界的再现成功地表现出了一种原始的天真和简朴，一种涌动着生命力和动物天性的感觉——这是一种理想的存在形式。然而，在对过去进行去历史化的过程中，为了重新想象乡村那纯真和内涵丰富的黄金时代，作者别无选择，只能简单地在叙事种演绎其历史必然性。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
张艺谋在再现中国乡村历史时所面临的道德困境，与寻根作家所面临的困境相似:在追寻“中国性”实质的同时，也发现了中国社会和文化传统中令人不悦一面。这种道德困境在小说的叙事中也有反映。奇幻事件在解构历史表象的现实主义范式的同时，也创造了一幅具有异域风情的乡村生活画面。正如王大卫指出的那样，怀旧的对象也很容易与异国情调联系在一起(1993,109)。
因此，如果我们在张大千的小说中找到某种物质来支持他超然而空洞的“土地”隐喻，那么这种“物质”仍然不够具有吸引力和吸引力。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan

==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：基础、本能，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持群落的生活。对年轻村民夜游野地狂那狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种生活方式很快造就了他们毒打老婆的行为，令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.

然而，正是这种结构上的空虚，让张炜的散文充满了许多意义。

张炜的《九月寓言》和散文，体现了他对真理和道德的追求。这种道德基础不是建立在以城市中心为代表的科学知识和市场经济的理性建构的现代世界上的，而是基于简单的乡村生活。这种探索源于作者对现代文明某些方面的幻灭。在张炜看来，“现代工业文明代表了一种美的形式，然而这种形式容易伤害到另一种更根本、更永恒的美。理想主义者都希望这两种形式的美能够和谐地存在，不会有太大的冲突。

--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.

随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

由于战线不断被重新划定，并变得越来越模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出一种狂野的猛击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的太极拳的特点。但文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者，也可以说是分析性的）的作用，这篇文章以其多变、不和谐和自信的姿态迎接了挑战。因此，它最能表现后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：最近，论文以其新奇的分支充斥着公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治文章外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络随笔等等。但是，正是有了20世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文最令人惊叹的新奇、灵巧和神韵式。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 03:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

张承志被一些人赞誉为一本书拯救了整个二十世纪的中国写作，他乘着《心灵史》（《灵魂史》，1992年）大受欢迎的顺风，似乎又回到了公共论坛，他的话语权又恢复了，他的 "神圣 "使命感又重新被唤醒。乍一看，这似乎不是那个完成《心灵史》后被自己升华到的精神境界所折服，向读者诚恳恳地恳求："从今以后，不再有这个'我'了 "的张承志。请把我从你们的记忆中驱逐出去。......我甚至已经把自己吓了一跳，有了这本书，我可以让自己如此戛然而止。"[张承志，“心灵史”（广州：花城出版社，1991）311。但是，张承志在此后与读者的持续对话中，是否曾退出公共论坛，放逐自己的声音？--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]

他是否意外地加入了那些逃避现实的知识分子的行列?面对20世纪90年代初的社会压迫和身份错位，他们自以为是地击退了退缩。

的确,在1992年他意想不到的名声的高度,(张承志再三声明在他所写的文章在这个时候,他自愿终止他的职业生涯作为一个职业作家的渴望被拥抱的穆斯林社区,他厌恶的作家和知识分子一般没有做什么面对猖獗的消费主义价值观。
张毫不犹豫地宣布，他的职业作家生涯已经结束，他将回到中国西北贫瘠的黄土地区的穆斯林社区，开始新的生活。
虽然是真的,他口头宣布放弃他的信仰与主流知识分子,他的领带,否则事实证明:他既继承遗产的对话的潜力他早期散文一样他据称摆脱“汉族”中国教育,也不否认他增长的知识环境,好像那些名片他象征性地厌恶地撕碎了。
(这一象征性的行为在他的一篇“立场陈述”文章《我撕名片的方法》中作了详细的辩护，发表在《无辅助的思想》(人类文艺出版社，1999)。)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 07:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

他特别针对著名的回族史学家杨怀忠，他对回族与满汉统治者合作的穆纳菲尔斯的调查，在张先生看来，已经内化了权力知识联盟的统治密码。尽管张先生对此评价优良，研究也很广泛，但他斥责杨先生的冷漠立场。

一方面，你试图批判性地反思你自己和你的传统，另一方面，你又想把对人类灵魂的压抑和侵犯公之于众。你所研究的那种课题，怎么可能还是同样的历史学？如果说杨振宁还没有摆脱虚伪的民族匿名感，那么，面对历史上对胡人的不公正待遇，张先生也不会让自己轻松。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

在19世纪多次镇压回族起义的遗址金积堡，他不由得斥责自己身为专业的历史学者却没有为历史错误报仇。他在1996年发表的一篇名为《海浪颂》的文章中坦言道。

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

碰巧我有幸成为一名经过全面训练的历史学家，但一丝不苟地检查了每一处官方记载都没能提供任何反驳。碰巧我是“回族”出身，虽然我试图绕过这一点，但无法逃脱这个历史遗址——笼罩在金积堡的冬季薄雾一波又一波地敲打着我，迫使我作出承诺，宣布“nietie”，以履行我多年前随意作出要奉献给人民的承诺。

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

杨怀忠，也叫杨·默罕默德·乌斯拉尔，是一名知名的回族史学者，对18世纪哲合忍耶穆斯林起义做了重要的研究。张先生在《英雄的野性之路》评论道。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 06:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.
这并不是为了发泄自己的负罪感而偶尔爆发的情感。多年的学术研究、田野工作和研究，使自己的民族记忆和情感同理心不那么淡薄，这是一种真诚的自责。与新学者对“无兴趣”和中立的追求不同，张勇敢地选择了种族主义和社会激进主义的方向:推倒“客观”历史竖起的柱子，穿透政治和宗教恐惧的墙壁，揭开被掩埋的种族压迫和暴力的真相。有人可能会质疑张对历史学术的看法过于情绪化和偏颇，从而冒着将史学贬低为个人疑虑的风险。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

在一个道德混乱的年代，这难道不会使他成为一个孤独的追求道德完美的人吗？张的忠告似乎与王小明对于自我导向的道德正义的定义完全吻合。作为20世纪80年代知识分子直接参与政治的一种选择，王强调了终极关怀的个人品质，认为: “(1)你只能从个人经验中寻找终极价值; (2)你找到的是你自己对终极价值的解释，而不是终极价值本身。”张似乎和那些孤独的寻找者一样，重视自我激励，追求缺失的道德美德，尽管这种追求具有超越性和远见性。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

但他的作品某个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 05:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。主张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为，对当代中国知识分子混乱和无能现状的批评是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是在倒退的政党领导的议程的指导下，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。或者他/她受到持不同政见的政治力量的驱使，开始新一轮的政治颠覆，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。站在这两种立场的批评者都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

就这一点而言，他还坚定地认为普通文化主义者通过一种奇怪的扭曲方式对市场文化及其大众消费者的极端“卑躬屈膝” ，由此变成推动由“汉族”构成的力量，以便在新一轮的东西方对抗中重新获得一种非常具有种族中心主义色彩的自我授权模式。

尽管张对“人民”的看法与新左派的看法非常接近，但他并没有把他们当作复制品来传达。相反，作为一个移动的但至关重要的批评立场，他提取了他们与欺骗性的“大众文化”斗争的关键效果，并将其植入他的边境侵犯策略中。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的吴漠汀和新民刘演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

同样，“ zawen”作家与公开的庄严语调保持距离，其唯一目的是使他们的握柄更易于胃口，声音更易听见。张成志暂时退出宗教隔离是另一个例子，因为在短暂的独占统治之后，他以更坚定的信念和更广泛的议程再次进入公共领域。根据王朋的讨论，王安忆的案子可能不那么清楚。可以肯定的是，她似乎已经很好地适应了商品化的新的消费主义社会。然而，很明显，她对杂文作家情感的运用是认真的。

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

所有这些类型都被视为国际类型。我所假设的中西杂文在形式和内容上的跨文化互通性也许可以证明这一点。

21世纪，世界在共同发展，文化的现代化程度是决定文化发展的主要因素。正如我们今天在报纸上看到的，中国杂文采用了西方杂文的形式和内容，并针对与西方杂文相媲美的目标群体。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

6 （周 1929:180-181）

7 (Zhou 1923).

7 （周 1923）

8 (The Family in 1951)

8 （《家》1952）

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

9 （1982 一篇叙文）

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

10 （随想录）1980年代的论文更具自传性，涉及当今社会的文学和问题。由于本文的性质，我们可以通过他的“随机思想”来了解巴金的内心世界。

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

11（随想录 1978-86，见巴金 1988）

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

2，巴金通过狗表达了失去妻子的痛苦。在论文结尾之前，Ba Jin痛苦地回忆起他的妻子，他在那十年中病倒了去世。在早些时候出现在该系列中的文章“在纪念下山中”中，他承认对她的死感到内severe，这使他陷入了梦中。他声称，他们因他而拒绝了她的治疗。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

4，用这种方式处理“文化大革命”的重要性。如果将这篇文章与1979年的其他文章进行比较，那它和其他跟风批判“文化大革命”的文章无异。但是，也有像冰心这样的作家为了制造作品连贯的假象，她在文化大革命不久就使用了与以前相似的书名，以此否认“文化大革命”。王蒙以幽默的方式应对“文化大革命”-“巴金”的文章因无情和坦白独树一帜。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

4、这种方式对于“文革”的意义。如果把这篇文章与1979年的其他文章作比较，一个共同趋势就是都对“文化大革命”进行了批判。但也有像冰心这样的作家否认“文化大革命”的存在——在它结束后不久，她采用和以前相似的标题来制造作品连贯的假象。王蒙以一种幽默的方式来描写 “文化大革命”——由于巴金的散文无情又直白，从他们的作品中脱颖而出。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 08:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

5，修辞手段的运用。巴金假装是一个简单的记实小说作家。“我期待文学[…]能说出真相”。事实上他以真实的直白和控诉而著称，有时他的文学风格被人批判说太过直白和自然（出自香港学生们的谴责）。他在《小狗包弟》中使用像动画这种构成和修辞手法的文学手段来引起读者的共鸣。《小狗包弟》寓言式地展现了文化大革命时期的不公和残忍。在文中，巴金不是像以前那样去直接把真相描述出来，而是变成一个叙述者去富有寓意地讲述记忆中的文化大革命的真相。他渴望一个虚构的真相，而不是描绘托马斯·阿奎奈的感受的真相。王德威发现老舍、茅盾、沈从文的虚构现实主义助于理解这篇文章。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

20201221 trans

2020-12-21T13:18:13Z

Mashuya: /* Ma Shuya 马淑雅 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
通用类别不是杂文倾向于混合的唯一方面；它们的特征通常是音调，风格和声音的突然变化，从一连串的窃窃私语转变为优雅，古典的谈话。与胡适（1918）的杂文思想是对报纸其他页面文章的“回应”一样，杂文仍然是大多数报纸的特色，几乎总是以直接引用作者读过或听过的东西的形式包含“箔”。除了创建微观的社会对话外，在作者和“箔纸”两种声音之间进行的这种划分还使样式和声音产生了令人头晕目眩的冲突，使句法，语法以及思想不可能包含在一个文本中。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然读者讨厌具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的时代杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。他们甚至会保存这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.

看了这位发言者的评论，还有一件事让我感到疑惑。按照这个说法，"从接下来的两年（指今明两年）的纪律和整改来看，会有更多的新挑战、新问题，文艺刊物应该对稳定人心、增强信心有所帮助，而不是消磨人民的意志"。看了这么多报纸，我还是第一次看到这个 "稳定民心 "的命题。如果说要稳定民心，那就必须从民心不稳的假设出发。至于民心不稳的原因，又回到了这两年的 "纪律整顿和新挑战、新问题 "上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

文学报《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应他们的请求。写到这里，我突然觉得，这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字是无法叙述完的。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道，指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写着：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“古物”了，早已没有了往日的繁华与辉煌。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.

最近，我读了刘濛的《雨天的回忆》，写于1958年4月的一个雨天，当时他和一群人一起被送去了北大荒。雨中的月台，雨中的火车头；他故作深沉的回忆道，这记忆也被雨水洗净了。当时的刘濛还很年轻，但是许多和他一起踏上这段旅程的人都陷入了上了年纪的艰辛中，当然每个人都有自己的“早年”经历。

耷拉着头，走在被雨打湿的街道上；这是一位来自远方的旅人。每扇窗户都在哭泣；回忆起在雨中的那个人。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 07:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.

乡愁表现了人类疏远或疏离的一种基本状态，随着当代中国现代化和全球化的进程加快，范围扩大，乡愁也因此加深。对希望保持传统的社会道德守护者或社会良知角色的知识精英和希望维持纯文学与通俗文学区别的文学家来说，这种怀旧情绪他们深有体会。正是这种道德绝对主义和文学精英主义遭到了文化和社会经济变化的破坏。张志强笔下的怀旧主义所揭示的，与其说是对现代化进程的抵触，不如说是未能对中国现代性复杂性做深入的理解。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中将“土地”具体化为一个先验隐喻，这只能说明作者对中国现代性的复杂性缺乏深刻的历史见解。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化的困境和矛盾作为永久固定的知识和文化景观。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判也表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国的后社会主义社会现实变得更加复杂和苛刻，文化形态更加多样化和无组织化，任何基于前现代社会关系和规范的明确的道德解决方案(假定一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程所带来的文化危机感。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 06:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，没有明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实、神话、传说、魔法和故事叙述之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇、神话和超自然的人物和事件:牛根的身体在他真正死亡之前被风吹了一段时间。一个叫金游的人能从乳房里挤出奶来。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成一只青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲喝农药之后却没有死亡;相反，她的头发变得更黑了，皮肤也变的更柔软了。与马尔克斯的《百年孤独》的相似之处在于这些神奇的事件在与其他“真实”事件相同的本体论水平上以现实的方式呈现。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张炜的前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它无法在我们的现代文化条件下想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
所以，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所降临的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).

此外，正如标题所示，整部小说的作者意图是作为一个寓言，而不是历史，尽管它是以历史的模式写的。村庄的神话起源，它缺乏时间观念，以及它突然而灾难性的结局都指向对历史进程的否定。复杂的叙述结构背叛了这个神话般的过去的想象和奇异的构造。因此，张伟笔下的小村庄与其说是一个怀旧的历史对象，不如说是一个想象与乌托邦话语融合的地形/文本场所。换句话说，作为一种文学建构，这个幻影村与其说来自于对已经失去的东西的实际渴望，不如说是来自于对从未存在过的东西的渴望(Wang 1993,130)。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.

明显的不一致说明了怀旧的本质，即既是一种质朴的立场，又是一种感觉的结构。

然而，形式上的复杂性与原始存在之间的不一致是我们后现代主义中国文学和文化生产的一个标志。在讨论第五代电影时，雷伊·周指出，原始主义常常与现代主义/后现代主义有关。按照周的定义，“原始激情”出现在“文化危机时刻”。这是一个虚构的事实，是一种对在建设后发生的原始农村根源的感觉上的虚构（1995，22-23）。周的原始激情理论则是基于她对新中国电影的研究。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.

在那里，他几乎与外界隔绝，希望这种远离现代城市的放逐能让他的精神更接近土地和自然，从而重新感受中国人民的活力，重新发现中国文化的历史根源/乡土根源。正如所有评论家所认同的那样，这部小说对远古世界的再现成功地表现出了一种原始的天真和简单，一种涌动着生命力量和生命力的感觉——这是一种理想的存在形式。然而，在对过去进行去历史化的过程中，为了重新想象乡村那纯真和内涵丰富的黄金时代，作者别无选择，只能简单地在叙事种演绎其历史必然性。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
张艺谋在再现中国乡村历史时所面临的道德困境，与寻根作家所面临的困境相似:在追寻“中国性”实质的同时，也发现了中国社会和文化传统中令人不悦一面。这种道德困境在小说的叙事中也有反映。奇幻事件在解构历史表象的现实主义范式的同时，也创造了一幅具有异域风情的乡村生活画面。正如王大卫指出的那样，怀旧的对象也很容易与异国情调联系在一起(1993,109)。
因此，如果我们在张大千的小说中找到某种物质来支持他超然而空洞的“土地”隐喻，那么这种“物质”仍然不够具有吸引力和吸引力。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan

==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：基础、本能，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持群落的生活。对年轻村民夜游野地狂那狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种生活方式很快造就了他们毒打老婆的行为，令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.

然而，正是这种结构上的空虚，让张炜的散文充满了许多意义。

张炜的《九月寓言》和散文，体现了他对真理和道德的追求。这种道德基础不是建立在以城市中心为代表的科学知识和市场经济的理性建构的现代世界上的，而是基于简单的乡村生活。这种探索源于作者对现代文明某些方面的幻灭。在张炜看来，“现代工业文明代表了一种美的形式，然而这种形式容易伤害到另一种更根本、更永恒的美。理想主义者都希望这两种形式的美能够和谐地存在，不会有太大的冲突。

--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.

随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

由于战线不断被重新划定，并变得越来越模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出一种狂野的猛击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的太极拳的特点。但文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者，也可以说是分析性的）的作用，这篇文章以其多变、不和谐和自信的姿态迎接了挑战。因此，它最能表现后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：最近，论文以其新奇的分支充斥着公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治文章外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络随笔等等。但是，正是有了20世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文最令人惊叹的新奇、灵巧和神韵式。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 03:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

张承志被一些人赞誉为一本书拯救了整个二十世纪的中国写作，他乘着《心灵史》（《灵魂史》，1992年）大受欢迎的顺风，似乎又回到了公共论坛，他的话语权又恢复了，他的 "神圣 "使命感又重新被唤醒。乍一看，这似乎不是那个完成《心灵史》后被自己升华到的精神境界所折服，向读者诚恳恳地恳求："从今以后，不再有这个'我'了 "的张承志。请把我从你们的记忆中驱逐出去。......我甚至已经把自己吓了一跳，有了这本书，我可以让自己如此戛然而止。"[张承志，“心灵史”（广州：花城出版社，1991）311。但是，张承志在此后与读者的持续对话中，是否曾退出公共论坛，放逐自己的声音？--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]

他是否意外地加入了那些逃避现实的知识分子的行列?面对20世纪90年代初的社会压迫和身份错位，他们自以为是地击退了退缩。

的确,在1992年他意想不到的名声的高度,(张承志再三声明在他所写的文章在这个时候,他自愿终止他的职业生涯作为一个职业作家的渴望被拥抱的穆斯林社区,他厌恶的作家和知识分子一般没有做什么面对猖獗的消费主义价值观。
张毫不犹豫地宣布，他的职业作家生涯已经结束，他将回到中国西北贫瘠的黄土地区的穆斯林社区，开始新的生活。
虽然是真的,他口头宣布放弃他的信仰与主流知识分子,他的领带,否则事实证明:他既继承遗产的对话的潜力他早期散文一样他据称摆脱“汉族”中国教育,也不否认他增长的知识环境,好像那些名片他象征性地厌恶地撕碎了。
(这一象征性的行为在他的一篇“立场陈述”文章《我撕名片的方法》中作了详细的辩护，发表在《无辅助的思想》(人类文艺出版社，1999)。)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 07:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

他特别针对著名的回族史学家杨怀忠，他对回族与满汉统治者合作的穆纳菲尔斯的调查，在张先生看来，已经内化了权力知识联盟的统治密码。尽管张先生对此评价优良，研究也很广泛，但他斥责杨先生的冷漠立场。

一方面，你试图批判性地反思你自己和你的传统，另一方面，你又想把对人类灵魂的压抑和侵犯公之于众。你所研究的那种课题，怎么可能还是同样的历史学？如果说杨振宁还没有摆脱虚伪的民族匿名感，那么，面对历史上对胡人的不公正待遇，张先生也不会让自己轻松。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

在19世纪多次镇压回族起义的遗址金积堡，他不由得斥责自己身为专业的历史学者却没有为历史错误报仇。他在1996年发表的一篇名为《海浪颂》的文章中坦言道。

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

碰巧我有幸成为一名经过全面训练的历史学家，但一丝不苟地检查了每一处官方记载都没能提供任何反驳。碰巧我是“回族”出身，虽然我试图绕过这一点，但无法逃脱这个历史遗址——笼罩在金积堡的冬季薄雾一波又一波地敲打着我，迫使我作出承诺，宣布“nietie”，以履行我多年前随意作出要奉献给人民的承诺。

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

杨怀忠，也叫杨·默罕默德·乌斯拉尔，是一名知名的回族史学者，对18世纪哲合忍耶穆斯林起义做了重要的研究。张先生在《英雄的野性之路》评论道。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 06:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.
这并不是为了发泄自己的负罪感而偶尔爆发的情感。多年的学术研究、田野工作和研究，使自己的民族记忆和情感同理心不那么淡薄，这是一种真诚的自责。与新学者对“无兴趣”和中立的追求不同，张勇敢地选择了种族主义和社会激进主义的方向:推倒“客观”历史竖起的柱子，穿透政治和宗教恐惧的墙壁，揭开被掩埋的种族压迫和暴力的真相。有人可能会质疑张对历史学术的看法过于情绪化和偏颇，从而冒着将史学贬低为个人疑虑的风险。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

在一个道德混乱的年代，这难道不会使他成为一个孤独的追求道德完美的人吗？张的忠告似乎与王小明对于自我导向的道德正义的定义完全吻合。作为20世纪80年代知识分子直接参与政治的一种选择，王强调了终极关怀的个人品质，认为: “(1)你只能从个人经验中寻找终极价值; (2)你找到的是你自己对终极价值的解释，而不是终极价值本身。”张似乎和那些孤独的寻找者一样，重视自我激励，追求缺失的道德美德，尽管这种追求具有超越性和远见性。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

但他的作品某个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 05:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。主张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为，对当代中国知识分子混乱和无能现状的批评是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是在倒退的政党领导的议程的指导下，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。或者他/她受到持不同政见的政治力量的驱使，开始新一轮的政治颠覆，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。站在这两种立场的批评者都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

就这一点而言，他还坚定地认为普通文化主义者通过一种奇怪的扭曲方式对市场文化及其大众消费者的极端“卑躬屈膝” ，由此变成推动由“汉族”构成的力量，以便在新一轮的东西方对抗中重新获得一种非常具有种族中心主义色彩的自我授权模式。

尽管张对“人民”的看法与新左派的看法非常接近，但他并没有把他们当作复制品来传达。相反，作为一个移动的但至关重要的批评立场，他提取了他们与欺骗性的“大众文化”斗争的关键效果，并将其植入他的边境侵犯策略中。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的吴漠汀和新民刘演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

同样，“ zawen”作家与公开的庄严语调保持距离，其唯一目的是使他们的握柄更易于胃口，声音更易听见。张成志暂时退出宗教隔离是另一个例子，因为在短暂的独占统治之后，他以更坚定的信念和更广泛的议程再次进入公共领域。根据王朋的讨论，王安忆的案子可能不那么清楚。可以肯定的是，她似乎已经很好地适应了商品化的新的消费主义社会。然而，很明显，她对杂文作家情感的运用是认真的。

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

所有这些类型都被视为国际类型。我所假设的中西杂文在形式和内容上的跨文化互通性也许可以证明这一点。

21世纪，世界在共同发展，文化的现代化程度是决定文化发展的主要因素。正如我们今天在报纸上看到的，中国杂文采用了西方杂文的形式和内容，并针对与西方杂文相媲美的目标群体。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

6 （周 1929:180-181）

7 (Zhou 1923).

7 （周 1923）

8 (The Family in 1951)

8 （《家》1952）

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

9 （1982 一篇叙文）

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

10 （随想录）1980年代的论文更具自传性，涉及当今社会的文学和问题。由于本文的性质，我们可以通过他的“随机思想”来了解巴金的内心世界。

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

11（随想录 1978-86，见巴金 1988）

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

2，巴金通过狗表达了失去妻子的痛苦。在论文结尾之前，Ba Jin痛苦地回忆起他的妻子，他在那十年中病倒了去世。在早些时候出现在该系列中的文章“在纪念下山中”中，他承认对她的死感到内severe，这使他陷入了梦中。他声称，他们因他而拒绝了她的治疗。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

4，用这种方式处理“文化大革命”的重要性。如果将这篇文章与1979年的其他文章进行比较，那它和其他跟风批判“文化大革命”的文章无异。但是，也有像冰心这样的作家为了制造作品连贯的假象，她在文化大革命不久就使用了与以前相似的书名，以此否认“文化大革命”。王蒙以幽默的方式应对“文化大革命”-“巴金”的文章因无情和坦白独树一帜。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

4、这种方式对于“文革”的意义。如果把这篇文章与1979年的其他文章作比较，一个共同趋势就是都对“文化大革命”进行了批判。但也有像冰心这样的作家否认“文化大革命”的存在——在它结束后不久，她采用和以前相似的标题来制造作品连贯的假象。王蒙以一种幽默的方式来描写 “文化大革命”——由于巴金的散文无情又直白，从他们的作品中脱颖而出。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 08:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

5，修辞手段的运用。巴金假装是一个简单的记实小说作家。“我期待文学[…]能说出真相”。事实上他以真实的直白和控诉而著称，有时他的文学风格被人批判说太过直白和自然（出自香港学生们的谴责）。他在《小狗包弟》中使用像动画这种构成和修辞手法的文学手段来引起读者的共鸣。《小狗包弟》寓言式地展现了文化大革命时期的不公和残忍。在文中，巴金不是像以前那样去直接把真相描述出来，而是变成一个叙述者去富有寓意地讲述记忆中的文化大革命的真相。他渴望一个虚构的真相，而不是描绘托马斯·阿奎奈的感受的真相。王德威发现老舍、茅盾、沈从文的虚构现实主义助于理解这篇文章。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 13

2020-12-21T13:01:43Z

Mashuya: /* Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya */

==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==

<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components.

Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.

===Key Words===

Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence

===摘要===

卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。

尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。

===关键词===

卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等

===Introduction===

Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)

The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.

===Introduction of Catford's theory===

Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)

====The Nature of Translation====

According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)

====The Classification of Translation====

Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.

In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

====Translation Equivalence====

From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)

But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)

According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)

====Translation Shifts====

The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140)

Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)

====Limits of Translatability====

Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)

===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===

Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)

====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====

Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)

Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)

In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence.

(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)

Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.

The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.

This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

====Reader's Response Theory====

Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007)

For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)

====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====

The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)

The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:

(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.

(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.

(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.

(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)

The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:

(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.

(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.

(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.

(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===

Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form.

====Meaning====

Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)

Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.

According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)

In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant.

====Equivalent====

“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)

Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)

Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.

According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.

Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist.
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)

====Form====

The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)

As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)

Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)

===Conclusion===

This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two.

Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable.

Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.

===Bibliography===

* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.

* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.

* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.

* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.

* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).

* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.

* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.

* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.

* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==

<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center>

===Abstract===

Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.

===Key Words===

functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type

===题目===

探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。

===关键词===

功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型

===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===

Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book.

Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)

In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===

Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory.

====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====

Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24)

This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====

Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56)

Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===

What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12)

And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts.

Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art.

Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.

===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===

Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33)
[[File:111.jpg]]

This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)

Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===

The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note.

====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====

When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）
'''
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation.

However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)
'''
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====

When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''.

Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.

The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.

When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===

The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Conclusion===

Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.

===References===

Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.

Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.

Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.

Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.

J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.

Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.

Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.

Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65.

Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.

Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.

='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=

==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.

===Key words===
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory

===摘要===
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。

===关键词===
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论

===Introduction===
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.

But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)

===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.

After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.

As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.

For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc.

The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.

Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).

As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)

Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.

===Three-beauty Theory===
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)

Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.

"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.

Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122)

Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8)

Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)

For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.

===Three-Resemblance Theory===
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)

"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)

Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)

Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)

Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)

But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)

Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:

Resemblance in form: 1+1<2

Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2

Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)

Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)

===Three-Transformation Theory===
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization".

Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)

Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.

===Three-Purpose Theory===
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22)

So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.

===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.

On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems.

Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)

On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.

Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).

In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.

===Conclusion===
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.

He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.

===References===
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html

Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].

Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.

Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].

Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.

Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].

Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].

Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.

Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].

Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.

Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.

Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].

Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].

==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==
===摘要===
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。
===关键词===
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流
===Abstract===
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.

===Key Words===
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation
===Introduction===

Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.

He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.

As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.

Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication.

Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.

===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication===
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)

Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.

"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)

It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.

All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges.

"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)

The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.

“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.

"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.

These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.

Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===

Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)

I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)

====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.

In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples:

罗摩这样说了以后，
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，
就把神秘的兵器来解说：
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。

This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.

====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====

The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”

So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :

有成群的海豚和蛇，

还有来回游泳的鱼，

天空里好像布满了，

闪闪发光的这些东西。

天空里又像是布满了，

像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，

颜色灰白，水气极重，

忽然间就会四散飞奔。

有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，

有的地方，水流又被阻住，

有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，

有的地方，水又缓缓流出。

有的地方，水流同水流，

互相撞击，碰在一起，

一刹那间，流上天去，

但一转眼，又落下平地。

This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed.

When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:

山溪中水缓缓流，
流水清澈似天空；
山头像大蟒蛇信，
吐出清水似水晶。
好像喜马拉雅山，
此山辉煌多洞穴，
罗波看那宾阇耶，
就走向那摩陀河。
圣水朝着西海流，
此河水流石上头；
公牛、小鹿和狮子，
豹子、熊罴和大象，
来到河中激起浪。

山溪中水缓缓流，
流水清澈似天空；
山头像大蟒蛇信，
吐出清水似水晶。
好像喜马拉雅山，
此山辉煌多洞穴，
罗波看那宾阇耶，
就走向那摩陀河。
圣水朝着西海流，
此河水流石上头；
公牛、小鹿和狮子，
豹子、熊罴和大象，
来到河中激起浪。

Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)

====The third Criteria: Elegance====

Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.

Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.

In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:

罗摩说：“真是这样“，
他心里非常舒畅。
那些天上的光辉精灵，
有了形体，多福多幸，
对罗摩拱手说话，
声音甜蜜又动听:
“虎般的人！下命令，
我们将何去何从？”

罗摩说：“真是这样“，

他心里非常舒畅。

那些天上的光辉精灵，

有了形体，多福多幸，

对罗摩拱手说话，

声音甜蜜又动听:

“虎般的人！下命令，

我们将何去何从？”

In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.

There is one more example:

那一位弥提罗的国王，
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。
那一位阿逾陀的城主，
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。
虎般的人在前面走着，
带着一群仙人和罗摩。
这里和那里，成群的鸟，
对他大声唱出了悲歌。
所有大地上的鹿群，
都向着男方拼命奔波。

那一位弥提罗的国王，

把自己的住处弥提罗城进。

那一位阿逾陀的城主，

也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。

跟在所有的仙人们的后面，

带着随从和兵卒向前奔。

虎般的人在前面走着，

带着一群仙人和罗摩。

这里和那里，成群的鸟，

对他大声唱出了悲歌。

所有大地上的鹿群，

都向着男方拼命奔波。

In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）

"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.

Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23)

With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)

In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）

Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.

===Advocation of Literal Translation===
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)

When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.

Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” (Ji Xianlin 1984,598）

From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.

It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden.

这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）

For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)

But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)

He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)

Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."

At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.

The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.

Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）

He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)

===Opposition to translation through a third language.===

It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.

This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.

If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed.

Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）

This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.

====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies.

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.

Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)

Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

====Pursue an ideal state.====
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:

"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)

Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.

This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.

Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：

"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)

In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

===Conclusion===
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.

===Reference===
* Ji Xianlin季羡林.(2007).季羡林谈翻译.[Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].北京Beijing.当代中国出版社[Contemporary China Publishing House].

* Liu Ting刘婷，Luo Chunpeng罗春朋.(2017).季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想.[Mr. Ji Xianlin’s Translation Principles and his Translation Thoughts ]. 南通大学学报. [Journal of Nantong University(Social Sciences Edition)]. (04) 93-98.

* Wang Bingqin王秉钦.(2009)季羡林翻译思想“三论”.[Translation Thought of Ji Xianlin:”Three Theories”].中国外语. [Foreign Languages in China].(05):89-92.

* Wu Guangting吴光亭.(2011).季羡林翻译思想初探[A preliminary research on Ji Xianlin’s thought on translation].周口师范学院学报.[Journal of Zhoukou Normal University]. (06):60-65.

* Xu Xianwen许先文(2010).季羡林译学思想述评.[A discussion of Ji Xianlin’s thoughts on translation].学海. [Academia Bimestrie]. (02):213-216.

* Xiao Zhiqing肖志清,Xie Shaohua谢少华.(2011).季羡林的翻译观探究[An Exploration into Ji Xianlin’s Views on Translation].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版) [Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences(Social Sciences Edition)],(03):102-107.

* Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2006).季羡林与翻译[Ji Xianlin and Translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(06):54-57.

* Li Jingduan李景端(2005).听季羡林谈翻译[Listen to Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(02):30-31.

* Ji Xianlin季羡林.(1984),罗摩衍那(七)[Ramayana(7)].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社.(People Literature Press):598.

* Ji Xianlin季羡林(1989),从斯大林论语言学谈到“直译”和“意译”[From Stalin’s discussion on linguistic to literal translation and free translation].当代文学翻译百家谈[Hundreds of Modern Literature Translation].北京Beijing:北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]:578.

* Chinese Translators Dictionary’s Writing Group《中国翻译家辞典》编写组.(1988),中国翻译家辞典[Chinese Translators Dictionary].北京Beijing:中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation]:14-15.
--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==

<center>雷方圆，202070080593.</center>

===Abstract===
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）

===Key Words===
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.

===题目===
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用

===摘要===
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）

===关键词===
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略

===Introduction===
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）

It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)

With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)

In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)

This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===

====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）

Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）

From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)

O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)

This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）

But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective.
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）

At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）

However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）

So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）

==== Definition of Tourism Translation====

Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59)

Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)

The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)

Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)

At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)

==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）

From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)

====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)

=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)

For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）

When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）

Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.

[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]

===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)

[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]

All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]

For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）

[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]

The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）

On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)

Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)

It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)

Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)

Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)

Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)

Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)

Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)

Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)

Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)

Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)

Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)

From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）

As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Bibliography===

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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.

O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.

Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205.

Chen Gang陈刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．

Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.

Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.

Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.

Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.

Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.

Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.

Zeng Dan曾丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．

Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。

Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==

张佩闻 202070080624

==Abstract==

The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.

==Keywords==

Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference

==摘要==

中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。

==关键词==

中西译论历史相似性差异性

==Introduction==
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.

==Western Translation History==
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）

Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）

The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)

The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)

Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)

The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)

After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)

==Chinese Translation History==
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)

The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)

These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)

The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)

The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)

The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)

==Similarities==
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)

When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)

"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)

In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）

Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）

==Differences==
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)

There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)

The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)

The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)

==Conclusion==
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.

==Reference==

*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008

*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.

*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.

*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845

*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.

*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.

*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.

*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.

*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.

History of Translation Studies 12

2020-12-21T12:08:35Z

Mashuya: /* The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory */

='''Culture Loaded Words'''=

==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637==
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center>

=== Abstract ===

Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.

=== Key Words ===
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills

=== 题目 ===
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究

=== 摘要 ===
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。

=== 关键词 ===
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧

=== 1.Introduction ===
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level.

Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.

There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.

====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that

“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002,232)

During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur.

What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.

====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti 1995,20)

It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti 1995,35)

In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.

Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.

=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===

Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.

For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implicit knowledge of Chinese cultural background, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges.

The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.

This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.

====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====

The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.

Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling 2005,229)

"It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day.In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month."(Xu 2005,230)

The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu 2005,230)

Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu 2005,232)

In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food. For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.

Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.

“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan 2005,92))

At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.

Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu 2005,92)

We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu 2005,93)

Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.

According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005,232)

After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu 2005,234)

So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).

In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu 2005,234)

====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====

Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family.

In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.

The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.

Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang 2008,54)

In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.

"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu 2005,35)

For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu 2005,36)

By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.

For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”

It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang 2008,58)

The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.

====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====

The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".

In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)

From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)

For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.

For example, "the Chinese cuisine '鸟语花香', can be translated into 'Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)' and '青龙过海' can be translated into 'Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)". (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)

This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.

The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.

The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)

Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.

“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)

2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu 2005,38)

3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)

After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused.

Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.

=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===

In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind.

Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.

====3.1 Translation Method ====

First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .

In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang 2014,106)

Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.

Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi 2002,153)

Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao 2002,153)

Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.

Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.

Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene 1969,13)

“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.

In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017,75)

Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.

====3.2 Translation System ====

We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang 2014,106)

Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.

With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.

Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually.

Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu 2008,99)

In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan 2003,12)

As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu 2003,12)

The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu 2003,15）

Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.

Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu 2003,15）

====3.3 Training of Translators ====

The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.

Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.

Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang 2014,106))

However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.

It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.

This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu 2008,69))

Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.

Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu 2003,16)

At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.

Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.

=== 4. Conclusion ===

In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.

Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.

The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.

In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.

Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.

When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.

In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.

With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.

To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.

=== 5. References ===

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*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D].["A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication"]上海外国语大学.[Shanghai International Studies University.]

*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].["Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"] 中国地质大学.
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*Xie Ke 谢柯(2009)从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].["On the Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Post-colonial Perspective"]重庆文理学院学报.[Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Science]129-131.

*Jiang Tong 蒋童(2010)韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].["Venuti's Foreignization Translation and the Charm of Translation Ethics"]外国语.[Foreign language.]80-82.

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--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 MTI ==

===Abstract===

In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.

===Key words===

interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy

===摘要===

在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，并以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了会议口译中文化负载词的翻译策略。

===关键词===

释意理论文化负载词翻译策略

===Introduction===

With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have little knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distortion and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.

China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the culture-loaded words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges to interpreters. (Li Ying 2017,419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.

Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.

===Overview of Interpretive theory===

The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.

The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998,193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning.

It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).

===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===

The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”.

This saying is familiar with Chinese people which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful.

The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.

===Overview of Translation of Culture-loaded Words===

====Definition and classification of Culture-loaded words====

Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010,106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996,402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964,91）

By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.

(1)Three-character Structure

A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.

At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)

(2)Four-character Structure

In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.

Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.

(3) Idioms

Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.

(4) Poetry
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017,419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the ''Mencius Teng Wengong'': “物之不齐，物之情也”.

(5)Chinese Characteristic Words

Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.

====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====

Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002,232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect.

（1） Translation Difficulties Caused by History and Culture

"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004,34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, "磕头" has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. (Sun Xianmei 2019,209)

（2）Translation Difficulties Caused by Customs and Traditions

The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.

（3）Translation Difficulties Caused by the Social Environment

Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult.

===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===

When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc. Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.

====Literal translation====

A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.

Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.

Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners.

Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.

Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019,116-117)

Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)

Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.

Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”

Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.

====Semantic Interpretation====

Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.

Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other.

Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.

Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere.

Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.

Example (7)："促进投资快速增长.我们发挥政府投资'四两拨千斤'的作用,引导带动社会投资"(Wen Jiabao 2010a)

Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.

Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo Huiqing 2018,94-96）

====Free Translation====

Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo Huiqing 2018,94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.

Example (8) :“物之不齐,物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)

Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.

Analysis: The saying "物之不齐,物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.

Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生,百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”

Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生,百事得其道者成" is from Taoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019,116-117)

The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience

====Streamlining Information Interpretation====

In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.

Example (10): "40年众志成城,40年砥砺奋进,40年春风化雨,中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗." (Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.

Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms "众志成城","砥砺奋进"and "春风化雨" all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.

Example (11): "形势稍好,尤需兢慎;居安思危,思则有备,有备无患."(Wen Jiabao 2005a )

Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.

Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words "兢" and "慎" convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.

Example (12):"两年前,我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛,规划政策沟通,设施联通,贸易畅通,资金融通,民心相通的合作蓝图."(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.

Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通,设施联通,贸易畅通,资金融通,民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.

===Conclusion===

The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.

Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.

===Conferences===
*Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91.

*Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5

*Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232

*Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34

*Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193

*Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178

*Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209

*LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424

*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96

*Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93

*Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.

===Website Links of the speeches===

*Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html

*Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html

*Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm

*Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm

*Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml

*Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm

==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==

<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center>

===Abstract===

Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. As language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and puts forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, which is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.

===Key words===

Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.

===题目===
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略

===摘要===

如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上促进了中国文化的传播。

===关键词===

文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略

===Introduction===

Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture.(Zheng Dehu.
2016(02):53-56)

As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016)

However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. (Fei Xiaotong 2009)

Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners in China should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.（Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.2020(13):177-180）

===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===

Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.

Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to be greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.

However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.

===How to interpret culture-loaded words===

====The definition of culture-loaded words====

Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions." So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.

In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999).

The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from a widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…

To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.

====The classification of culture-loaded words====

Different scholars classify culture-loaded words as differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).

What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:

Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.

Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.

Political culture-loaded words refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.

Religious culture-loaded words are words that reflect the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.

Linguistic culture-loaded words represent that Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)

Different cultural loaded words are often translated by using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)

===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===

Chinese is different from English in that Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection, while English is a kind of synthetic language featured as inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways of expression and each has to be translated in different ways.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)
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Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures.

Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)

For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)

For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” is rendered in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages, therefore,results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)

However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks:

Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to be fully achieved in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)

===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===

As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981)

Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：

====Transliteration====

Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)

For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）

Followings are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）

====Literal Translation====

“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally.

It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. （Tan Ping. 2017(33):170-172）

A more example: 孔子很重视美育。他说：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。

English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).

As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.

However, literal translation is not the dead translation from word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions as a way to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. （Tan Ping. 2017(33):170-172）

In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).

====Paraphrasing====

This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand；thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).

Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language readers can get close to the source language, feeling and remembering the culture, and then further explanations are given so that target language readers can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).
Let's look at another example: 道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)

English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．

Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).

Here,“道”are translated with a method of' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators is lost to realize a balance in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)

==== Free Translation====

English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)

For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather shifting expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original.

Let's look at another example:

Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。

English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)

In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if it is translated as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will fulfill the purpose and enable the readers to understand its meaning easier , realizing an effective cultural communication.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)

Linguistic culture-loaded words are always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）

===Conclusion===

All in all，Translation is not a simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying things in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keeping the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjusting the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)

At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign cultures， according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the mostly-used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)

But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, translators of other languages are also wanted. But regardless of the language, with the aim of making global cultures more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)

===Reference===

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*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.

*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.

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*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.

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*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.

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*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.

--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620 国别与区域研究==
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center>
===Abstract===
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.
===Key Words===
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China
===题目===
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例
===摘要===
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。
===关键词===
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》

===Introduction===
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.

====1.1 Research Background====
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.

China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.

====1.2 Research Significance====
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".

====1.3 Research Methods====
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.

====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.

The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.

The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.

The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example.
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.
===2 Literature Review===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.

Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.

With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.

====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.

Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.(Ma Zhengqi 1997)

In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.

====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.

The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.

===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.

====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc.

====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.

====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.

====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.

====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.

===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.

====4.1 Omission====
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.

Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。

Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.”

In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.

====4.2Replacement====
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.

Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。

Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.”

"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.

Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.

Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.

Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.

In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.

====4.4 Literal Translation====
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.

Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。

Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.

White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.

===Conclusion===
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well.

===Reference===
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.

Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].

Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].

Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.

Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].

Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.

Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.

eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.

Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.

Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.

==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==

<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center>

===Abstract===
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by people around the world and translations of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of cultural meaning, there exists many challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，and regarded it as a way to explain the phenomenon.

In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu’s version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensured by cognitive view of translation.

===Key Words===

culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's poems; cognitive view of translation; Xu Yuanchong.

===题目===

认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例

===摘要===

毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。

本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。

===关键词===

文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲

===1. Introduction===

Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenons as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. And it also contains regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)

As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems which carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and prevailing versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators' creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)

In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

===2. Literary Review===

Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and affluent cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.

====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====

Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic fields in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and developed his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.

The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan, Wang Xin 2019: 10)

In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)

[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]

[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]

Taking CNKI(China National Knowledge Infrastructure) database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It is clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry.

Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that major studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put into a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.

====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====

The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)

Xu Yuanchong is a representative in all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)

Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many “Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by translators from different theoretical perspectives.” (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88) While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems.

After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.

====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====

This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.

=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====

Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. This, therefore, give rise to culture-loaded words.

In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with message of specific national culture and contain deeper meaning of the national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.

As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91)

Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)

=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====

When putting culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI(China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are roughly 1000 of papers related to it, a majority of which take novels and subtitles as research objects and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism, with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that too much attention has been given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively and separately.

====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====

Based on above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89). As has analysed before, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. Going forward, it is possible that there would be an increase of researches upon Mao's poems on 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023.

For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation. (Yu Lixia 2016: 106)

Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It makes sense that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.

===3. Theoretical Framework===

Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Currently, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend. (Guan Yingzi 2020:117)

This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====

Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language systems. Translators’ role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)

Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:

“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms of both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the real world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)

[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]

Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation possess embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)

On the one hand, cognitive linguistic view of translation recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to translators' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)

In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, becomes cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between the author and target readers.

====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====

The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on individual's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, it provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.

=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====

“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his/her inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)

1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:

红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47)

1b. The Long March (October 1935):

Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 48)

Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a representative words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong.

“As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture.” (Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is a target expression that is functionally equivalent to the one used in the source language.

=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====

As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and the source language, subjects and the target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17)

Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:

“The world influences the author. The author reveals the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)

2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：

万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 28)。

2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)

Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors
strikes the sky overhead. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 29)

In the example above, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation from the cognitive view.

=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====

“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the differences of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a ‘reflector’ or ‘microphone'.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17)

Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint that “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)

3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：

中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 95)

3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)

Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not
to powder the face. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 96)

Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang). The former one refers to women makeup, while the later refers to the battle outfits. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.

=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====

“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.

Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:

4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 57)

4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow

Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 58)

5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 5)

5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha

All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 7)

In Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”in example 4a was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the northern China. (2011: 87) And in example 5a,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)

Accordingly, in 4b, “万”was rendered as “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also retains the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”in 5a means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)

=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====

According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meaning of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)

Xu also assumes that the source and target text can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)

6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 44)

6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou

Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 45)

Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.

===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===

“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the original poem and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of it.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)

In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and bringing the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.

====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====

It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)

In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to follow two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text.

7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：

天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 62)。

7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)

Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 62)

7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing

Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)

In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu’s version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place through reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106)

7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the literal meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.

In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics.

====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====

In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)

To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting:

The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers together as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47)

Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山(Mount Pillar)” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red area.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30)

====4.3 Creative Violation====

Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation views of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)

As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14)

Especially, creative violation is employed in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but it is not the best expression. Taking Xu’s illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao’s poem''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means ‘a part’ and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.

===5. Conclusion===

“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture-loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:

Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of such words and have an embodied experience of the original text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.

Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.

Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the cultural connotation of the original text with more details.

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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.

===Key words===
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison
===摘要===
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。
===关键词===
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比
===Introduction===
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )

===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)
====The early stage====
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )
====The developing stage====
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )

====The peaking stage====
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)

Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)

===An Overview of Bible Translation ===
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.

The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.

The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)

The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible ===
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.

First, the early English translations of the Bible.

The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).

Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.

Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).

Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.

The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).

Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.

The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).

Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.

There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).

2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)
　　　　
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)

4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)

===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).

2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)

3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)

An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)

When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).

According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)

The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)

Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)

In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)

4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)

The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)

(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)

===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:

1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;

2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;

3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;

4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;

5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;

6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation;

7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text;

8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics;

9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process.

10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.

Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.

When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting
===References===
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海 Shang Hai：上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2000

Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京 Bei Jing：中国对外翻译出版设社 China Foreign Translation Press，1984.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京 Bei Jing：商务印书馆 Commercial Press，2004

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京 Bei Jing：外语教学与研究出版社 Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press，2009.

Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.

Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Xihua University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Version),2013,32(01):67-70.

Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料 Cultural and educational materials,2009,(06):31-32

Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家 Youth Lierator,2018,(18):187.

Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛 Central China Humanities Collection,2014,5(01):117-119.

Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学 An Hui Literary(下半月) (the second half),2009,(07):327.

Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报 Journal of Shangdong Radio and TV University，2009，(01):62-64.

Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译 Shang Hai Translation,2008,(03):46-50
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center>
===Abstract===
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This chapter discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi's translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as an example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded words translation. This chapter consists of six parts. Part one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Part four analyzes ''Vanity Fair'' and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Part five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in ''Vanity Fair'' from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Part six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This chapter aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.

===Key words===
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization

===摘要===
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文包括七个部分,第一部分介绍了翻译及其不同的定义,第二部分论述归化和异化的定义及其发展过程,第三部分介绍文化负载词及其分类,第四部分介绍了杨必的《名利场》及翻译特点,第五部分从归化和异化的角度分析《名利场》中文化负载词的翻译,第六部分是对全文的总结。文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。

===关键词===
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化

===1.Introduction===
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can not only solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This chapter focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in ''Vanity Fair'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example.

As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book ''The Art of Translation'' and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.

Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style"(Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that "(Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text".(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact,their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu's theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.

==='''2.Domestication and Foreignization'''===
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====

According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined "leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him"(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", he also points out that these cultures are "accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other" (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator's function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17).

The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language's cultures and features and disseminates target language's cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)

====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" and regards its role as to "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad"(Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization "depends on domestic cultural materials" (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is "equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text", yet disposes that they "tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it".(Venuti, 2004, 34)

====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategy and the second domesticating strategy. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.

Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.

===3. Culture-loaded Words===
====3.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words====
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years' development of a nation and contains the nation's customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64).

Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.

====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This chapter mainly analyzes Nida’s classification.

=====3.2.1 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.

=====3.2.2 Material-loaded Words=====
Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people's basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.

=====3.2.3 Ecological-loaded Words=====
Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to "Yellow River", it is natural for people to think of the term "mother of rivers" because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.

=====3.2.4 Religious-loaded Words=====
Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.

=====3.2.5 Linguistic-loaded Words=====
Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.

===4.''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===
====4.1 Introduction of ''Vanity Fair''====

''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.

The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.

The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and the other is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl's lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia's brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）

Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.

In the meantime, Amelia's father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.

On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family's fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks up with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone.

Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin's love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.

Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. ''Vanity Fair'' expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book's structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）

====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese Version of ''Vanity Fair'' by Yang Bi====
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one.

Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator's deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.

Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)

Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text's fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.

===5. Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===
====5.1 Application of Domestication====
=====5.1.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====

Example1:

Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)

希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。

“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.

Example 1:

Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)

希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。

“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:

The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)

那家伙真是老鼠胆子。

The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.

Example 3:

Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)

叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。

In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.

Example 4:

Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)

可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。

In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.

=====5.1.2 Material Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 5:

He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)

他又要了一碗五味酒。

“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.

Example 6:

I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）

有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。

“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.

Example 7:

It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)

只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。

As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.

=====5.1.3 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 8:

In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)

正在对他训话。

“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.

Example 9:

But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)

花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。

“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.

Example 10:

He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）

他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。

“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.

Example 11:

Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)

每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。

The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.

There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.

Old Nick 魔鬼老爹

The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子

Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？

A second wife 填房

Off the hooks 翘了辫子

O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们

=====5.1.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 12:

Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）

奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。

“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.

Example 13:

What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)

汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。

“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.

Example 14:

So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)

同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。

In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.

====='''5.1.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 15:
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)

她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。

In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.

====5.2 Application of Foreignization====
=====5.2.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 16：

He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)

因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌。

This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)

Example 17:

When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)

用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。

The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.

=====5.2.2 Material Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 18:

Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)

摸上去就像五条小香肠。

“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.

=====5.2.3 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 19:

I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)

我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。

Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.

Example 20:

“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)

他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)

This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.

Example 21:

Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)

当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）

“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.

Example 22:

About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）

活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。

There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.

====='''5.2.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 23:

He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.

在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）

The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.

====='''5.2.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 24:

Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)

我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）

“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.

Example 25:

Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）

白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）

The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.

==='''6.Conclusion'''===
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.

Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.

===References===
Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004.

Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.

Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.

Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.

Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.

Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.

Li Duanyan 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.

Bao Huinan, Bao Ang 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=

==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu==

<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597 英语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.

===Key words===
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation

===题目===
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系

===摘要===
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。

===关键词===
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译

===Introduction===

====Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)

The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29).

Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance with the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)

Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)

The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)

To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.

====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

===Case Analysis===

====The translation of tourism texts====
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17)

Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception.

Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)

Example 1

ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）

TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.

TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.

Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos Theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.

Example 2

ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）

TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.

Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.

Example 3

ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）

TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.

Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.

====2.2The translation of literary texts====
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories.

In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured.

This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.

Example 4

ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)

TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。

Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.

Example 5

ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)

TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)

TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)

Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics.

At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂".

Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with.

Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.

Example 6

ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)

TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.

Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Blessings'' written by Lu Xun. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Blessings'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.

====The translation of business texts====
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民王立非 2009,17)

Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)

Example 7

ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)

TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。

TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。

Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.

Example 8

ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)

TT1:未来即现在。

TT2:让未来，现在就来！

Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.

Example 9

ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)

TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.

Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique".

More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.

===Summary and conclusion===
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.

This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.

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* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.

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--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==

<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center>

===Abstract===

Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.

First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）.

Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.

However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.

===Key words===

Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods

===题目===

从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译

===摘要===

习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。

===关键词===

奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法

===1.Introduction===

Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.

===2.Literature Reviews===

Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）

For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===

The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.

====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====

According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.

====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====

According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.

To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.

===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===

Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.

His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.

====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.

====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language.

Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）

====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists.

Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating.

An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.

This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.

===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===

====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese.

For example:
黑马 black horse
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing
动如脱兔 as fast as hare

The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.
Yi Xuming（2014:21）

====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies.

On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）

That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority.

====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent.

There are some examples
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.

====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====

As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture.

Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）

===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===

Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.

====6.1 Literal Translation====

Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples.
动如脱兔——as fast as hare
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head

In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.

English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼），“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby.

Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）

====6.2 Borrowing Translation====

Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.

胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit
力大如牛——as strong as a horse
虎口——lion’s mouth
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom
害群之马——a black sheep
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs

Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.

But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.

Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture.

In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper.

Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）

====6.3 Free Translation====

Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.

The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT.

There are examples.
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully

The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）

====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====

There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples.
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be

In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀鸡儆猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）

===7.Conclusion===

English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .

===8.References===

*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.

*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.

*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.

*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.

*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148.

*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.

*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.

*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.

*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.

*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.

== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==

<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center>

=== Abstract ===

With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.

This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.

'''Key words'''

Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods

=== 摘要 ===

随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。

本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。

'''关键词'''

目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法

=== Introduction ===

The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job.

Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference.

Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===

As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners.

==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ====

Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works.

Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc.

==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ====

''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.

Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.

=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory ===

The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory.

==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ====

Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs.

Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).

==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====

The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.

The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos.

The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory ===

Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory.

==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ====

In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words

In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation.

Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures.

3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words

A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries.

For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.

3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''

A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture.

Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91).

==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ====

When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.

3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words

Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.

Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)

Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)

Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)

As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.

Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)

Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule.

Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule.

3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words

Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.

Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)

Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)

Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.

Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)

Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)

The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.

3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words

Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.

Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)

Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)

Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.

Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)

Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.

3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words

Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.

Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)

Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)

Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)

Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory.

3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words

Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples.

Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)

As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory.

Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)

"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.

==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ====

Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.

3.3.1 Translator

The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies.

3.3.2 Readership

Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper.

3.3.3 Translation Purpose

In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.

=== Conclusion ===

As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication.

In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.

=== References ===

Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.

Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. Nanjing: Yilin Press.

Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.

Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).

Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center>
===Abstract===
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.

===Key words===
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation

===题目===
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异

===摘要===
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。

===关键词===
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译

===1. Introduction===
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)

Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)

Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)

===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1).

Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).

“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)

Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)

===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68).

Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)

Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).

===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)

====3.1.1 The commercial function====
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)

For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)

In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)

====3.1.2 The informative function====
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).

The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)

Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)

====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)

For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)

===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)

====3.2.1 Literal translation====
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)

Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）

Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)

Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)

The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)

Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)

Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)

====3.2.2 Addition====
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)

Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)

The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)

Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)

In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)

For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)

Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)

The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)

====3.2.3 Omission====
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)

A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)

Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)

Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)

Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)

The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)

Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)

In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)

===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===
====4.1.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)

However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)

The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)

====4.1.2 Free Translation====
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57).

Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)

The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)

===5. Conclusion===
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)

This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)

In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)

All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)

===6. References===
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57.
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*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158.
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27.
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3).
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75.
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社.
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30.
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.
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*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==

<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译. </Center>

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.

===Key words===

Skopos theory; resume; translation

===摘要===

中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。

===关键词===

目的论；简历；翻译

===Introduction===

For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.

===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===

A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.

====1.1 Definition of Resume====

According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)

====1.2 Features of Resume====

Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）

1.2.1 Conciseness

When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）

1.2.2 Clarity

The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）
1.2.3 Authenticity

Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）

1.2.4 Pertinence

If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）

1.2.5 Objectivity

I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）

====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====

Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.

1.3.1 Role of Resume

If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume

According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

1.3.3 Focus of Resume

In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Here are examples:

①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.;
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc;
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc;
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc.

Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.

===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===

Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.

====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====

In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.

The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.

The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original.

After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.

According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.

Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.

The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.

The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.

====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====

Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.

2.2.1 Skopos Rule

From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)

However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)

In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)

2.2.2 Coherence Rule

Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)

When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)

2.2.3 Fidelity Rule

According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)

2.2.4 Loyalty Rule

This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation.

According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.

In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.

===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===

From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.

====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====

The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)

3.1.1 Action verbs

A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.

Example 1:

1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技

2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点

3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益

4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量

Translation:

1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.

2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.

3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China

4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House

These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences.

When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them.

Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)

3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation

Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)

Example 2:

负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成

Translation:

Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time

From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.

Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）

====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====

It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.

3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence

Example 3:

担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。

Translation 1:

As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.

Translation 2:

1. Served as the gas station project development manage
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station

In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself.

In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.

3.2.2 Syntactic Unity

When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.

Example 4:

1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神

2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题

3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。计算机二级VB，三级数据库。

Translation:

1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life

2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems

3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)

From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）

Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）

====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====

In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)

3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information

There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.

Example 5:

姓名：张三

性别：男

年龄：25

身高：185

政治面貌：团员

婚否：已婚

地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区

电话：1337658xxxx

电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com

Translation:

Zhang San

Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province

Tel:1337658xxxx

Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com

By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.

3.3.2 Concise Style

As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)

Example 6:

2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”

2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员”

2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”

Translation 1:

2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University

2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University

2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University

Translation 2:

Third-class and Second-class Scholarship

National Scholarship for Higher Motivation

Excellent Student(2 Times)

Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader

Outstanding League Members

The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)

===Conclusion===

When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.

When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.

Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.

Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

===Reference===

[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.

[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).

[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.

[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.

[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).

[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.

[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.

[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.

[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.

[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.

[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying 202020080626 外国语言学及应用语言学==

===Abstract===

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory.

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, the lexical gap in semantics and in translatology are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

===Keywords===

Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory

===摘要===

由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。

===关键词===

词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论

===Introduction===

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the conceptual meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology define lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)

Besides, some reseachers equate the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper also tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy are urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper.

===Introduction of Skopos Theory===
====Development of Skopos Theory====
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behavior with certain purposes rather than translating process. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggestes that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in cultural context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)

Based on the action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer. He believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

====Principles of Skopos Theory====

There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules.

The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)

The Skopos theory means that the translation purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translating or expressing the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or your clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, the target text that a translator gives should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers' world and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural background knowledge of the target receivers' world and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text for the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose that is based on the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).

===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===

====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====

By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions.

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750)

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in ''Linguistics across Cultures''. In ''Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics'', the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined as “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system" (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750) --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77)

Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China. The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)

Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)

Guo Aixian( 1998) summed up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to culture-specific words. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture.

====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)

Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap.

For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)

By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)

From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid)

=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages.

Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)

A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent

Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Concept vacancy

Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

b. Expression Vacancy

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may not be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target language. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent

Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness.

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the two kinds of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are different in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

By comparing the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absent lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12) --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====

It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.

=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)

Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64)

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However, the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words have some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However, the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.

=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨” to refer to “have an affair” in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap.

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨” to refer to “have an affair” in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the same concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.

====The Causes of Lexical Gap====

=====Experiential Causes=====

There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is, while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====

The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes are always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

===Translation of Lexical Gap===

====Translatability and Untranslatability====

Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.

From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways.

====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====

Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translate the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 12:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites.

The translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 12:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

a. Concept Vacancy

For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concepts to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.

For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose by using the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)

The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)

The free translation can also be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 12:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody in target culture will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 12:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitation of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 12:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so some notes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes.

b. Expression Vacancy

For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.

In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”.

c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context.

If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words.

===Conclusion===

The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.

It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation.

Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words.

Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include.

===Reference===

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[7]Han Luan.韩鸾.(2009).认知视角下词汇空缺的对比研究.[A comparative study in lexical gaps from cognitive perspective].东北大学.[Northeastern University].1-49

[8]Li Yingyu.李颖玉, 郭继荣&袁笠菱.(2008).试论方言文化负载词的翻译——以《浮躁》中的“瓷”为例.[Translation of Culture-Loaded Dialect Words: With the Rendition of “ci” in Turbulence as An Exemplar ].中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal].(03)64-67+96.

[9]Qian Jing.钱静.(2013).跨文化交际角度下的词汇空缺研究.[The Study of Lexical Gap in Intercultural Communication].上海师范大学.[Shang Normal University].1-51.

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[15]Wu Leya.吴乐雅.(2019).跨文化交际中的文化词汇空缺现象及其翻译策略.[The Phenomenon of Culturally Lexical Gap in Cross-Culture translation and Its Translation Strategy]. 文教资料. [Cultural and Educational Information].(32)44-45+62.

[16]Zhang Jinlan张锦兰.(2004).目的论与翻译方法.[Skopos Theory and Translation Methods].中国科技翻译.[Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal].(01)35-37+13.

[17]Zhao Xiuxing.赵秀星.(2015).目的论视角下英剧《神探夏洛克》的字幕汉译研究.[Study of English-Chinese Subtitle Translation of Sherlock from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].山西财经大学.[Shanxi University of Finance & Economics].1-53.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 13:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

History of Translation Studies 12

2020-12-21T11:58:31Z

Mashuya: /* Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words */

='''Culture Loaded Words'''=

==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637==
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center>

=== Abstract ===

Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.

=== Key Words ===
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills

=== 题目 ===
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究

=== 摘要 ===
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。

=== 关键词 ===
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧

=== 1.Introduction ===
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level.

Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.

There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.

====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that

“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002,232)

During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur.

What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.

====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti 1995,20)

It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti 1995,35)

In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.

Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.

=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===

Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.

For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implicit knowledge of Chinese cultural background, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges.

The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.

This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.

====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====

The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.

Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling 2005,229)

"It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day.In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month."(Xu 2005,230)

The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu 2005,230)

Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu 2005,232)

In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food. For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.

Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.

“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan 2005,92))

At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.

Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu 2005,92)

We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu 2005,93)

Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.

According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005,232)

After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu 2005,234)

So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).

In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu 2005,234)

====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====

Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family.

In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.

The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.

Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang 2008,54)

In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.

"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu 2005,35)

For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu 2005,36)

By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.

For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”

It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang 2008,58)

The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.

====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====

The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".

In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)

From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)

For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.

For example, "the Chinese cuisine '鸟语花香', can be translated into 'Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)' and '青龙过海' can be translated into 'Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)". (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)

This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.

The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.

The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)

Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.

“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)

2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu 2005,38)

3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)

After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused.

Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.

=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===

In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind.

Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.

====3.1 Translation Method ====

First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .

In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang 2014,106)

Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.

Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi 2002,153)

Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao 2002,153)

Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.

Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.

Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene 1969,13)

“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.

In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017,75)

Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.

====3.2 Translation System ====

We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang 2014,106)

Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.

With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.

Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually.

Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu 2008,99)

In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan 2003,12)

As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu 2003,12)

The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu 2003,15）

Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.

Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu 2003,15）

====3.3 Training of Translators ====

The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.

Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.

Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang 2014,106))

However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.

It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.

This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu 2008,69))

Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.

Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu 2003,16)

At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.

Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.

=== 4. Conclusion ===

In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.

Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.

The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.

In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.

Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.

When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.

In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.

With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.

To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.

=== 5. References ===

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*Jiang Tong 蒋童(2010)韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].["Venuti's Foreignization Translation and the Charm of Translation Ethics"]外国语.[Foreign language.]80-82.

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--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 MTI ==

===Abstract===

In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.

===Key words===

interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy

===摘要===

在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，并以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了会议口译中文化负载词的翻译策略。

===关键词===

释意理论文化负载词翻译策略

===Introduction===

With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners have little knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distortion and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.

China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the culture-loaded words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges to interpreters. (Li Ying 2017,419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.

Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.

===Overview of Interpretive theory===

The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.

The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998,193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning.

It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).

===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===

The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”.

This saying is familiar with Chinese people which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful.

The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.

===Overview of Translation of Culture-loaded Words===

====Definition and classification of Culture-loaded words====

Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010,106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996,402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964,91）

By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.

(1)Three-character Structure

A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters, often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.

At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)

(2)Four-character Structure

In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.

Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.

(3) Idioms

Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.

(4) Poetry
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017,419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the ''Mencius Teng Wengong'': “物之不齐，物之情也”.

(5)Chinese Characteristic Words

Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.

====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====

Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002,232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect.

（1） Translation Difficulties Caused by History and Culture

"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004,34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, "磕头" has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. (Sun Xianmei 2019,209)

（2）Translation Difficulties Caused by Customs and Traditions

The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.

（3）Translation Difficulties Caused by the Social Environment

Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult.

===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===

When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc. Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.

====Literal translation====

A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.

Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.

Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners.

Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.

Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019,116-117)

Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)

Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.

Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017,419-424)

Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”

Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.

====Semantic Interpretation====

Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.

Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other.

Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.

Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere.

Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong 2018,10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.

Example (7)："促进投资快速增长.我们发挥政府投资'四两拨千斤'的作用,引导带动社会投资"(Wen Jiabao 2010a)

Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.

Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo Huiqing 2018,94-96）

====Free Translation====

Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo Huiqing 2018,94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.

Example (8) :“物之不齐,物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)

Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.

Analysis: The saying "物之不齐,物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.

Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生,百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”

Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生,百事得其道者成" is from Taoism by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019,116-117)

The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience

====Streamlining Information Interpretation====

In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.

Example (10): "40年众志成城,40年砥砺奋进,40年春风化雨,中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗." (Xi Jinping 2018a)

Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.

Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms "众志成城","砥砺奋进"and "春风化雨" all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.

Example (11): "形势稍好,尤需兢慎;居安思危,思则有备,有备无患."(Wen Jiabao 2005a )

Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.

Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words "兢" and "慎" convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.

Example (12):"两年前,我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛,规划政策沟通,设施联通,贸易畅通,资金融通,民心相通的合作蓝图."(Xi Jinping 2019a)

Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.

Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通,设施联通,贸易畅通,资金融通,民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.

===Conclusion===

The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.

Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.

===Conferences===
*Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91.

*Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5

*Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232

*Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34

*Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193

*Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178

*Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209

*LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424

*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96

*Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93

*Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.

===Website Links of the speeches===

*Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html

*Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html

*Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm

*Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm

*Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml

*Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm

==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==

<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center>

===Abstract===

Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. As language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and puts forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, which is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.

===Key words===

Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.

===题目===
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略

===摘要===

如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上促进了中国文化的传播。

===关键词===

文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略

===Introduction===

Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture.(Zheng Dehu.
2016(02):53-56)

As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016)

However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. (Fei Xiaotong 2009)

Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners in China should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.（Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.2020(13):177-180）

===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===

Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.

Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to be greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.

However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.

===How to interpret culture-loaded words===

====The definition of culture-loaded words====

Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions." So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.

In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999).

The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from a widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…

To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.

====The classification of culture-loaded words====

Different scholars classify culture-loaded words as differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).

What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:

Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.

Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.

Political culture-loaded words refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.

Religious culture-loaded words are words that reflect the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.

Linguistic culture-loaded words represent that Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)

Different cultural loaded words are often translated by using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)

===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===

Chinese is different from English in that Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection, while English is a kind of synthetic language featured as inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways of expression and each has to be translated in different ways.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)
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Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures.

Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)

For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)

For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” is rendered in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages, therefore,results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)

However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks:

Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to be fully achieved in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)

In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)

===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===

As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981)

Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：

====Transliteration====

Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)

For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）

Followings are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）

====Literal Translation====

“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally.

It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. （Tan Ping. 2017(33):170-172）

A more example: 孔子很重视美育。他说：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。

English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).

As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.

However, literal translation is not the dead translation from word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions as a way to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. （Tan Ping. 2017(33):170-172）

In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).

====Paraphrasing====

This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand；thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).

Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language readers can get close to the source language, feeling and remembering the culture, and then further explanations are given so that target language readers can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).
Let's look at another example: 道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)

English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．

Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).

Here,“道”are translated with a method of' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators is lost to realize a balance in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)

==== Free Translation====

English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)

For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather shifting expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original.

Let's look at another example:

Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。

English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)

In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if it is translated as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will fulfill the purpose and enable the readers to understand its meaning easier , realizing an effective cultural communication.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)

Linguistic culture-loaded words are always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）

===Conclusion===

All in all，Translation is not a simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying things in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keeping the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjusting the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)

At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign cultures， according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the mostly-used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)

But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, translators of other languages are also wanted. But regardless of the language, with the aim of making global cultures more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)

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--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620 国别与区域研究==
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center>
===Abstract===
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.
===Key Words===
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China
===题目===
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例
===摘要===
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。
===关键词===
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》

===Introduction===
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.

====1.1 Research Background====
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.

China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.

====1.2 Research Significance====
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".

====1.3 Research Methods====
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.

====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.

The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.

The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.

The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example.
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.
===2 Literature Review===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.

Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.

With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.

====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.

Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.(Ma Zhengqi 1997)

In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.

====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.

The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.

===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.

====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc.

====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.

====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.

====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.

====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.

===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.

====4.1 Omission====
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.

Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。

Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.”

In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.

====4.2Replacement====
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.

Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。

Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.”

"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.

Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.

Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.

Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.

In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.

====4.4 Literal Translation====
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.

Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。

Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.

White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.

===Conclusion===
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well.

===Reference===
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.

Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].

Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].

Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.

Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].

Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.

Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.

eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.

Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.

Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.

==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==

<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center>

===Abstract===
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by people around the world and translations of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of cultural meaning, there exists many challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，and regarded it as a way to explain the phenomenon.

In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu’s version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensured by cognitive view of translation.

===Key Words===

culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's poems; cognitive view of translation; Xu Yuanchong.

===题目===

认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例

===摘要===

毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。

本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。

===关键词===

文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲

===1. Introduction===

Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenons as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. And it also contains regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)

As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems which carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and prevailing versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators' creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)

In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

===2. Literary Review===

Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and affluent cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.

====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====

Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic fields in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and developed his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.

The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan, Wang Xin 2019: 10)

In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)

[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]

[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]

Taking CNKI(China National Knowledge Infrastructure) database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It is clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry.

Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that major studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put into a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.

====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====

The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)

Xu Yuanchong is a representative in all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)

Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many “Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by translators from different theoretical perspectives.” (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88) While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems.

After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.

====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====

This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.

=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====

Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. This, therefore, give rise to culture-loaded words.

In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with message of specific national culture and contain deeper meaning of the national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.

As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91)

Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)

=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====

When putting culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI(China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are roughly 1000 of papers related to it, a majority of which take novels and subtitles as research objects and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism, with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that too much attention has been given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively and separately.

====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====

Based on above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89). Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially on 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023.

For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation. (Yu Lixia 2016: 106)

Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It makes sense that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.

===3. Theoretical Framework===

Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Currently, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend. (Guan Yingzi 2020:117)

This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.

====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====

Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language systems. Translators’ role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)

Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:

“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms of both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the real world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)

[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]

Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation possess embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)

On the one hand, cognitive linguistic view of translation recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to translators' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)

In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, becomes cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between the author and target readers.

====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====

The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on individual's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, it provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.

=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====

“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his/her inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)

1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:

红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47)

1b. The Long March (October 1935):

Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 48)

Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a representative words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong.

“As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture.” (Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is a target expression that is functionally equivalent to the one used in the source language.

=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====

As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and the source language, subjects and the target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17)

Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:

“The world influences the author. The author reveals the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)

2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：

万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 28)。

2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)

Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors
strikes the sky overhead. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 29)

In the example above, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation from the cognitive view.

=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====

“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the differences of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a ‘reflector’ or ‘microphone'.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17)

Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint that “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)

3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：

中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 95)

3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)

Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not
to powder the face. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 96)

Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang). The former one refers to women makeup, while the later refers to the battle outfits. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.

=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====

“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.

Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:

4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 57)

4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow

Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 58)

5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 5)

5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha

All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 7)

In Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”in example 4a was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the northern China. (2011: 87) And in example 5a,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)

Accordingly, in 4b, “万”was rendered as “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also retains the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”in 5a means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)

=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====

According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meaning of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)

Xu also assumes that the source and target text can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)

6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 44)

6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou

Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 45)

Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.

===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===

“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the original poem and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of it.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)

In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and bringing the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.

====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====

It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)

In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to follow two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text.

7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：

天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 62)。

7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)

Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 62)

7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing

Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)

In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu’s version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place through reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106)

7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the literal meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.

In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics.

====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====

In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)

To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting:

The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers together as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47)

Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山(Mount Pillar)” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red area.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30)

====4.3 Creative Violation====

Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation views of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)

As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14)

Especially, creative violation is employed in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but it is not the best expression. Taking Xu’s illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao’s poem''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means ‘a part’ and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.

===5. Conclusion===

“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture-loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:

Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of such words and have an embodied experience of the original text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.

Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.

Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the cultural connotation of the original text with more details.

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==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.

===Key words===
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison
===摘要===
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。
===关键词===
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比
===Introduction===
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )

===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)
====The early stage====
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )
====The developing stage====
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )

====The peaking stage====
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)

Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)

===An Overview of Bible Translation ===
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.

The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.

The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)

The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible ===
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.

First, the early English translations of the Bible.

The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).

Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.

Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).

Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.

The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).

Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.

The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).

Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.

There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).

2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)
　　　　
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)

4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)

===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).

2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)

3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)

An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)

When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).

According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)

The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)

Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)

In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)

4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)

The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)

(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)

===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:

1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;

2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;

3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;

4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;

5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;

6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation;

7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text;

8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics;

9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process.

10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.

Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.

When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting
===References===
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海 Shang Hai：上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2000

Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京 Bei Jing：中国对外翻译出版设社 China Foreign Translation Press，1984.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京 Bei Jing：商务印书馆 Commercial Press，2004

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京 Bei Jing：外语教学与研究出版社 Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press，2009.

Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.

Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Xihua University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Version),2013,32(01):67-70.

Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料 Cultural and educational materials,2009,(06):31-32

Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家 Youth Lierator,2018,(18):187.

Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛 Central China Humanities Collection,2014,5(01):117-119.

Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学 An Hui Literary(下半月) (the second half),2009,(07):327.

Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报 Journal of Shangdong Radio and TV University，2009，(01):62-64.

Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译 Shang Hai Translation,2008,(03):46-50
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center>
===Abstract===
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This chapter discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi's translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as an example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded words translation. This chapter consists of six parts. Part one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Part four analyzes ''Vanity Fair'' and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Part five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in ''Vanity Fair'' from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Part six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This chapter aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.

===Key words===
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization

===摘要===
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文包括七个部分,第一部分介绍了翻译及其不同的定义,第二部分论述归化和异化的定义及其发展过程,第三部分介绍文化负载词及其分类,第四部分介绍了杨必的《名利场》及翻译特点,第五部分从归化和异化的角度分析《名利场》中文化负载词的翻译,第六部分是对全文的总结。文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。

===关键词===
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化

===1.Introduction===
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can not only solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This chapter focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in ''Vanity Fair'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example.

As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book ''The Art of Translation'' and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.

Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style"(Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that "(Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text".(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact,their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu's theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.

==='''2.Domestication and Foreignization'''===
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====

According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined "leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him"(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", he also points out that these cultures are "accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other" (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator's function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17).

The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language's cultures and features and disseminates target language's cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)

====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" and regards its role as to "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad"(Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization "depends on domestic cultural materials" (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is "equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text", yet disposes that they "tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it".(Venuti, 2004, 34)

====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategy and the second domesticating strategy. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.

Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.

===3. Culture-loaded Words===
====3.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words====
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years' development of a nation and contains the nation's customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64).

Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.

====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This chapter mainly analyzes Nida’s classification.

=====3.2.1 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.

=====3.2.2 Material-loaded Words=====
Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people's basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.

=====3.2.3 Ecological-loaded Words=====
Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to "Yellow River", it is natural for people to think of the term "mother of rivers" because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.

=====3.2.4 Religious-loaded Words=====
Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.

=====3.2.5 Linguistic-loaded Words=====
Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.

===4.''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===
====4.1 Introduction of ''Vanity Fair''====

''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.

The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.

The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and the other is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl's lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia's brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）

Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.

In the meantime, Amelia's father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.

On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family's fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks up with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone.

Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin's love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.

Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. ''Vanity Fair'' expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book's structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）

====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese Version of ''Vanity Fair'' by Yang Bi====
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one.

Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator's deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.

Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)

Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text's fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.

===5. Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===
====5.1 Application of Domestication====
=====5.1.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====

Example1:

Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)

希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。

“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.

Example 1:

Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)

希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。

“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:

The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)

那家伙真是老鼠胆子。

The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.

Example 3:

Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)

叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。

In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.

Example 4:

Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)

可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。

In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.

=====5.1.2 Material Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 5:

He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)

他又要了一碗五味酒。

“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.

Example 6:

I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）

有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。

“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.

Example 7:

It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)

只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。

As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.

=====5.1.3 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 8:

In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)

正在对他训话。

“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.

Example 9:

But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)

花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。

“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.

Example 10:

He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）

他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。

“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.

Example 11:

Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)

每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。

The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.

There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.

Old Nick 魔鬼老爹

The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子

Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？

A second wife 填房

Off the hooks 翘了辫子

O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们

=====5.1.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 12:

Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）

奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。

“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.

Example 13:

What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)

汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。

“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.

Example 14:

So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)

同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。

In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.

====='''5.1.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 15:
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)

她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。

In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.

====5.2 Application of Foreignization====
=====5.2.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 16：

He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)

因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌。

This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)

Example 17:

When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)

用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。

The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.

=====5.2.2 Material Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 18:

Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)

摸上去就像五条小香肠。

“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.

=====5.2.3 Social Culture-loaded Words=====
Example 19:

I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)

我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。

Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.

Example 20:

“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)

他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)

This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.

Example 21:

Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)

当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）

“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.

Example 22:

About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）

活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。

There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.

====='''5.2.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 23:

He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.

在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）

The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.

====='''5.2.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words'''=====
Example 24:

Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)

我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）

“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.

Example 25:

Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）

白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）

The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.

==='''6.Conclusion'''===
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.

Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.

===References===
Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004.

Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.

Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.

Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.

Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.

Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.

Li Duanyan 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.

Bao Huinan, Bao Ang 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=

==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu==

<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597 英语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.

===Key words===
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation

===题目===
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系

===摘要===
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。

===关键词===
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译

===Introduction===

====Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)

The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29).

Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance with the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)

Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)

The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)

To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.

====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)

====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)

===Case Analysis===

====The translation of tourism texts====
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17)

Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception.

Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)

Example 1

ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）

TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.

TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.

Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos Theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.

Example 2

ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）

TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.

Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.

Example 3

ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）

TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.

Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.

====2.2The translation of literary texts====
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories.

In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured.

This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.

Example 4

ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)

TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。

Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.

Example 5

ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)

TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)

TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)

Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics.

At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂".

Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with.

Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.

Example 6

ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)

TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.

Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Blessings'' written by Lu Xun. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Blessings'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.

====The translation of business texts====
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民王立非 2009,17)

Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)

Example 7

ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)

TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。

TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。

Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.

Example 8

ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)

TT1:未来即现在。

TT2:让未来，现在就来！

Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.

Example 9

ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)

TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.

Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique".

More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.

===Summary and conclusion===
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.

This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.

===References===
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* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

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* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.

* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.

* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.

* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.

* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.

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--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==

<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center>

===Abstract===

Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.

First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）.

Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.

However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.

===Key words===

Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods

===题目===

从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译

===摘要===

习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。

===关键词===

奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法

===1.Introduction===

Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.

In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

===2.Literature Reviews===

Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）

For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）

===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===

The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.

====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====

According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.

====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====

According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.

To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.

===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===

Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.

In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.

His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.

In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====

Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language.

Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）

====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists.

In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating.

An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.

This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.

Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===

====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese.

In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

For example:
黑马 black horse
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing
动如脱兔 as fast as hare

The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.
Yi Xuming（2014:21）

The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies.

On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）

That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====

Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent.

Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

There are some examples
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.

====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====

As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture.

Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）

In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===

Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.

====6.1 Literal Translation====

Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples.
动如脱兔——as fast as hare
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head

In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.

English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼），“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby.

Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）

====6.2 Borrowing Translation====

Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.

胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit
力大如牛——as strong as a horse
虎口——lion’s mouth
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom
害群之马——a black sheep
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs

Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.

But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.

Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture.

In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper.

Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）

====6.3 Free Translation====

Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.

The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT.

There are examples.
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully

The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）

====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====

There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples.
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be

In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀鸡儆猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）

===7.Conclusion===

English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .

===8.References===

*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.

*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.

*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.

*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.

*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148.

*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.

*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.

*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.

*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.

*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.

== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'': From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==

<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center>

=== Abstract ===

With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.

This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.

'''Key words'''

Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods

=== 摘要 ===

随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。

本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。

'''关键词'''

目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法

=== Introduction ===

The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job.

Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference.

Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===

As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners.

==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ====

Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works.

Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc.

==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ====

''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.

Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.

=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory ===

The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory.

==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ====

Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs.

Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).

==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====

The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.

The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos.

The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory ===

Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory.

==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ====

In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.

3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words

In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation.

Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures.

3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words

A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries.

For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.

3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''

A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture.

Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91).

==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ====

When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.

3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words

Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.

Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)

Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)

Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)

As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.

Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)

Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule.

Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule.

3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words

Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.

Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)

Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)

Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.

Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)

Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)

The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.

3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words

Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.

Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)

Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)

Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.

Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)

Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.

3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words

Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.

Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)

Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)

Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)

Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory.

3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words

Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples.

Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)

As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory.

Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)

"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.

==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ====

Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.

3.3.1 Translator

The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies.

3.3.2 Readership

Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper.

3.3.3 Translation Purpose

In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.

=== Conclusion ===

As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication.

In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.

=== References ===

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Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. Nanjing: Yilin Press.

Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.

Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.

Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).

Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center>
===Abstract===
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.

===Key words===
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation

===题目===
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异

===摘要===
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。

===关键词===
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译

===1. Introduction===
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)

Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)

Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)

===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1).

Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).

“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)

Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)

===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68).

Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)

Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).

===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)

====3.1.1 The commercial function====
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)

For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)

In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)

====3.1.2 The informative function====
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).

The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)

Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)

====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)

For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)

===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)

====3.2.1 Literal translation====
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)

Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）

Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)

Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)

The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)

Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)

Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)

====3.2.2 Addition====
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)

Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)

The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)

Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)

In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)

For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)

Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)

The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)

====3.2.3 Omission====
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)

A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)

Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)

Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)

Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)

The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)

Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)

In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)

===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===
====4.1.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)

However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)

The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)

====4.1.2 Free Translation====
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57).

Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)

The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)

===5. Conclusion===
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)

This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)

In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)

All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)

===6. References===
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--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==

<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译. </Center>

===Abstract===

With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.

===Key words===

Skopos theory; resume; translation

===摘要===

中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。

===关键词===

目的论；简历；翻译

===Introduction===

For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.

===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===

A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.

====1.1 Definition of Resume====

According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)

====1.2 Features of Resume====

Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）

1.2.1 Conciseness

When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）

1.2.2 Clarity

The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）
1.2.3 Authenticity

Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）

1.2.4 Pertinence

If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）

1.2.5 Objectivity

I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）

====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====

Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.

1.3.1 Role of Resume

If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume

According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

1.3.3 Focus of Resume

In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)

Here are examples:

①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.;
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc;
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc;
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc.

Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.

===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===

Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.

====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====

In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.

The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.

The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original.

After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.

According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.

Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.

The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.

The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.

====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====

Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.

2.2.1 Skopos Rule

From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)

However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)

In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)

2.2.2 Coherence Rule

Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)

When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)

2.2.3 Fidelity Rule

According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)

2.2.4 Loyalty Rule

This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation.

According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.

In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.

===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===

From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.

====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====

The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)

3.1.1 Action verbs

A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.

Example 1:

1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技

2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点

3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益

4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量

Translation:

1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.

2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.

3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China

4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House

These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences.

When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them.

Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)

3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation

Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)

Example 2:

负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成

Translation:

Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time

From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.

Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）

====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====

It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.

3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence

Example 3:

担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。

Translation 1:

As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.

Translation 2:

1. Served as the gas station project development manage
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station

In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself.

In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.

3.2.2 Syntactic Unity

When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.

Example 4:

1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神

2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题

3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。计算机二级VB，三级数据库。

Translation:

1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life

2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems

3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)

From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）

Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）

====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====

In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)

3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information

There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.

Example 5:

姓名：张三

性别：男

年龄：25

身高：185

政治面貌：团员

婚否：已婚

地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区

电话：1337658xxxx

电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com

Translation:

Zhang San

Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province

Tel:1337658xxxx

Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com

By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.

3.3.2 Concise Style

As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)

Example 6:

2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”

2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员”

2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”

Translation 1:

2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University

2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University

2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University

Translation 2:

Third-class and Second-class Scholarship

National Scholarship for Higher Motivation

Excellent Student(2 Times)

Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader

Outstanding League Members

The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)

===Conclusion===

When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.

When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.

Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.

Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

===Reference===

[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.

[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).

[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.

[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.

[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).

[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.

[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.

[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.

[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.

[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.

[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying 202020080626 外国语言学及应用语言学==

===Abstract===

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory.

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, the lexical gap in semantics and in translatology are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

===Keywords===

Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory

===摘要===

由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。

===关键词===

词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论

===Introduction===

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the conceptual meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology define lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)

Besides, some reseachers equate the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper also tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy are urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 10:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper.

===Introduction of Skopos Theory===
====Development of Skopos Theory====
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behavior with certain purposes rather than translating process. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggestes that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in cultural context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)

Based on the action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer. He believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

====Principles of Skopos Theory====

There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules.

The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)

The Skopos theory means that the translation purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translating or expressing the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or your clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, the target text that a translator gives should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers' world and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural background knowledge of the target receivers' world and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text for the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose that is based on the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).

===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===

====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====

By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions.

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750)

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in ''Linguistics across Cultures''. In ''Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics'', the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined as “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system" (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750) --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77)

Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China. The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)

Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)

Guo Aixian( 1998) summed up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to culture-specific words. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture.

====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)

Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap.

For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)

By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)

From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid)

=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages.

Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)

A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent

Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Concept vacancy

Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

b. Expression Vacancy

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may not be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target language. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent

Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness.

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the two kinds of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness. --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are different in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

By comparing the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absent lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12) --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====

It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.

=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)

Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64)

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However, the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words have some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However, the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.

=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨” to refer to “have an affair” in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap.

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨” to refer to “have an affair” in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the same concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.

====The Causes of Lexical Gap====

=====Experiential Causes=====

There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is, while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====

The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes are always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 11:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Mashuya

===Translation of Lexical Gap===

====Translatability and Untranslatability====

Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.

From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways.

====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====

Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites.

For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

a. Concept Vacancy

For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.

For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)

The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)

Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes.

b. Expression Vacancy

For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.

In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”.

c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context.

If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words.

===Conclusion===

The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.

It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation.

Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words.

Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include.

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