China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

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2020-12-21T03:25:14Z

Peng Yongliang: /* Qi Kai 漆凯 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.

随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

张承志被一些人赞誉为一本书拯救了整个二十世纪的中国写作，他乘着《心灵史》（《灵魂史》，1992年）大受欢迎的顺风，似乎又回到了公共论坛，他的话语权又恢复了，他的 "神圣 "使命感又重新被唤醒。乍一看，这似乎不是那个完成《心灵史》后被自己升华到的精神境界所折服，向读者诚恳恳地恳求："从今以后，不再有这个'我'了 "的张承志。请把我从你们的记忆中驱逐出去。......我甚至已经把自己吓了一跳，有了这本书，我可以让自己如此戛然而止。"[张承志，“心灵史”（广州：花城出版社，1991）311。但是，张承志在此后与读者的持续对话中，是否曾退出公共论坛，放逐自己的声音？--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?这个问题亚历山大，马丁.沃尔斯勒和新民刘曾提出过。现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

7 (Zhou 1923).

8 (The Family in 1951)

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

20201221 trans

2020-12-21T03:21:28Z

Peng Yongliang: /* Peng Yongliang 彭永亮 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.

随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?这个问题亚历山大，马丁.沃尔斯勒和新民刘曾提出过。现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

7 (Zhou 1923).

8 (The Family in 1951)

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 8

2020-12-19T06:01:59Z

Peng Yongliang: /* Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=
== Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==

==='''Abstract'''===

== Abstract: ==

==='''key words'''===

==='''摘要'''===

==='''关键字'''===

===Complete transcript of the content of the original work ===

===Same style and manner of writing===

===Equivalent effect===

===Discussion===

===Conclusion===

===Bibliography===

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu==
<center>王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of civilization and broken through the language barrier. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history becomes a basic project of the construction of the discipline. Although there are many differences of translation histories between the Western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights, and have an indelible influence and contribution to translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between the Western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 00:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Keywords===
===Key-words===--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation History of the West; Translation History of China; Comparative Study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society.

Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works.(Xie Tianzhen2009,Ⅴ)

The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.

No matter in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society. "Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the design of curriculum of Chinese and Western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another, including ''History of Translation in China – before May Fourth''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi, ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works."(Xie Tianzhen 2009,Ⅴ). The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

Western translation activities are rich in a long history. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient time, the middle age, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times===

The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.(Tan Zaixi2000,88-89)

At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping2009,8)

At that time, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas, started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The translation history of Western countries first began in the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC. (Tan Zaixi 2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, Greece began to decay and the Roman had become stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid culture of its own era after Greece. So it soon began large-scale translation activities. The activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping 2009,8). At that ttime, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome, and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used the Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89) It started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was religious in nature. In this period, translation was mainly related about the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west, Christianity strives to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of the Christianism naturally meant a lot in religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was concerned about religion. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west. Christians strived to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of Christianism naturally meant a lot in the religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. "Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgate) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible".(Quotation missing). This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ all are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement which took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European nation states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's Iliad and Odyssey from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping2009,9) The renaissance played a very important role in the western history of the development of translation, it marked the national language status in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated, simultaneously, it showed the translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Tan Zaixi2000, 91)

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English. (Liu Junping 2009,9) The Renaissance played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation. It marked the status of nationallanguage in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated. Simultaneously, it shows that translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 91) --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory, the world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growing in number or quantity of translation activities, the translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation, and with the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, having made tremendous progress, the translation scale has exceed the past.

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory.The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growth in number or quantity of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. With the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, making tremendous progress. And the translation scale has exceeded the past.(quotation missing)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, they have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 92)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, who have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The Western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 92).--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China. Although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasty, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history." (Ma Zuyi 1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 04:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Sutra should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China,it was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book The Fifty Books of the Mingdu translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,17)

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi 1998,17)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks,(Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' language knowledge , they usually used literal translation. The second perid was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way which was also use the literal translation. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality if translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi1998,82)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period, which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks, (Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of the language, they usually used literal translation. The second period was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to be translated in an organized way but was still translated literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time. (Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills. (Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in the Tang Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, but he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations. (Ma Zuyi1998,82)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra translation has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, the translation of Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, he was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, there appeared translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and improving the level of science in China.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin. He was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West. (Ma Zuyi 1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and the organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty. He made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoting the development of science in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate western natural science books, Under the influence of the reform thought, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. The records of four continents, translated by Liang Jinde, Lin Zexu asked him to do so, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations, His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time and advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of western natural science. Under the influence of the thought of reform, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China. （Ma Zuyi 1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period, translators in this period of time, by comparison with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective regarding source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand, the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang, these scholars had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces and enriched the inner world of the Chinese people, Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientization of translation theory in China.

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th Movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th Movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese. As a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of Western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter into a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translation like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu He puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. That is a literary translation is like the act of transmigration in which the souls, the spirit of the original text remain in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its "reform and open" policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural, and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translations like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the translation of the documents of the United Nations after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. It is like the act of transmigration in which the soul, the spirit of the original text remains in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of the disastrous "cultural revolution", China adopted the "reform and open" policy. Therefore, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

About the religious and translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religious to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of existence form of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of the society.

About the religious translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason. After the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religion to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of society.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of German language and the establishment of modern German, what’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary, in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century in the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German. What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. In the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese. --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kind of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, they have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations.(Tan Zaixi1999)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kinds of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations. (Tan Zaixi 1999, 缺页码)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First is that, the time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is due to the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in the ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially when people in the remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for a destination. So, there is difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations, there will be delay of the communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so it was much convenient and easier for the western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activity.

First, time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes. In ancient times, it took quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially at a long distance. Therefore, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head to a destination. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations. There would be a delay in communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so， it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set an ideal environment for the development of translation activities.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, the position of the religious varies. The different traditional culture of the west and China has made the concept of religious of the two are quite varied from each other. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabulary of their own. In the west, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, in order to consolidate his ruling position, the rulers ruled the people spiritually, and the doctrine of Buddhism was in line with the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

Also, the position of religion varies. The different tradition and culture of the west and China make the concept of religion of the two quite varied. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of the Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture. To consolidate his ruling position, the ruler controlled the people spiritually. The doctrine of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation tradition of the west and China differs. One of the differences of them is the difference between single system and multiple system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation. “because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.” By way of contrast, In terms of space, the western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of multiple system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi2000,15)

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between a single system and a poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese culture.”(Quotation missing) In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China. (Tan Zaixi 2000,15)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese and western translation concepts are different. Then, the translation theories are different. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practicality than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said that: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists are most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation and how to deal with them.” however, western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and China is conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept more challenges less, China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break through dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.

The concept of Chinese and western translation is different. Meanwhile, the translation theory in China and the west varies. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practice than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept fewer challenges. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theory, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to the direction of knowledge, and constantly leading us to explore into the unknown field.

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theories, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will able to learn from the experience and lessons in this development process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学 [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). 中西翻译简史 [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. 南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press武汉大学出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译[Chinese Translation and Western Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播[Translation and Religious Communication]. 中国校外教育理论 Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性[The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors. Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)
(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.
Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things. Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral. In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)
In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story", in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc.
In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.[6]

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425) and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc, but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.
In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc. For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper. As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. [9]In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.
In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan陈缘2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent
“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan
“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family
“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .
But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,

====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132) In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes, such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple. In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity. Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well. Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)
For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.
black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)
black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)
black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions. Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves. We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）
Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others, and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people". In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words. When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate. With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually. However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

===7.Reference ===

*Cai Xiaomin.蔡晓敏.( 2020).中英颜色词的对比与翻译研究[A comparative study of Chinese and English color words and their translation].海外英语[Overseas English],65-66.

*Yan Wen.颜雯.(2012).翻译中颜色词的中西文化内涵差异[The difference between Chinese and Western cultural connotations of color words in translation].青年文学家·语言研究,[ Young Literati-Language Studies],177.

*Jin Yan.金燕.(2012).浅析颜色词在中西文化下的翻译对比差异[An analysis of the contrasting differences in the translation of color words in Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Zhao Fenyan.赵芬艳.(2019).试论中西颜色词的文化内涵及翻译策略[The cultural connotation of Chinese and Western color words and translation strategies].师资校企经验[Faculty school-enterprise experience],232-234.

*Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.

*Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.

*Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of "Green/绿" in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.

*Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.

*Li Dan.李丹.(2018).中西文化差异下的颜色词翻译[Translation of color words under the difference of Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Li Hong.李虹.(2020).汉英颜色词翻译的差异性研究[A study of the differences between Chinese-English color word translations].文化长廊[Cultural Promenade].

*Liu Mengqi, Chen Xingxing.刘梦琪,陈星星.(2020).浅谈颜色词的翻译[A brief discussion on the translation of color words].校园英语翻译研究[Campus English Translation Study].

*Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.

*Xu Yanping.许雁萍.(2009).中西文化中颜色词语的差异及其翻译[The Difference of Color Words in Chinese and Western Culture and Their Translation].文学语言学研究[Literary Linguistics Research],212-213.

*Wang Yu.王羽.(2012).中西文化对比下颜色词的差异比较[Comparison of the differences in color words between Chinese and Western cultures].教育时空[Education Time],151.

*Li Yun, Jia Aiguang.李云,贾爱光.(2020).大学英语教学中英汉基本颜色词翻译对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion on the Translation of English and Chinese Basic Color Words in University English Teaching].校园英语[Campus English],11-21.

*Chen Yuan陈缘.(2020)英汉颜色词的文化差异与翻译[Cultural differences between English and Chinese color words and translation].海外英语[Overseas English],48-49.

==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing, 202070080614 英语笔译==--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>

===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding from a historical perspective, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore from a historical perspective the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept. Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. in the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.

Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept.

The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form.

Mkerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda.

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed.
===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful.

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were doubly condemned without being told; and the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems, one by one, Pound. The crime: infidelity. Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity' of Yan Fu and others.

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were condemned with few sensible reasons; and Pound, the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems. The crimeexerted on them is infidelity. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity'.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal and external. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics.

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal factors and external factors. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, logically debatable. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, some debatable points. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the author's view, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.

In my understanding, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own value judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one.

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, or to lose the order to translate, or to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, sometimes either to lose the rules to translate, or even to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (See Lefevere, 1992a: 15)

In short, it means "those who obey me will prosper, those who disobey me will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class.

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise.

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like in taijiquan, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle" (Huiyuan, 1984: 41), which strives for impartiality.

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology.

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Dawan, 1984:24)"

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology (Lefevere, 1992b: 15), but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (op. cit: 18)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue.

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons.

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology.

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians', politically. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation.[8]

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. [8]

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner.

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China.

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China.

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime.

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House.

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes.

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society.

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China.

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained.

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose.

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology.

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases.

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons.

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work.

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will.

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." [13]
IV. Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences. Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews.

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation.

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. [8] And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation.

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. [14] Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations.

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities.

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. [1 In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable.

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.
===Reference books===
*许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.

*吕俊．翻译研究:从文本理论到权利话语[J]．四川外语学院学报，2002，1 (18): 106-109.

*Bassnett, S & Ledever, A. Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 48.

*Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2010: 127-129.

*Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010: 1-70.

*王东风. 一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.

*周扬. 社会主义现实主义——中国文学前进的道路 [N].人民日报，1953-01-11 (1).

*文记东. 1949~1966年的中苏文化交流[M]，哈尔滨:黑龙江大学出版社，2011: 101, 144.

*马祖毅．中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.

*人民出版社马列著作编辑室．马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作中文本书目（1950~1983年）[Z]. 北京：人民出版社，1985.

*周东元，亓文公．中国外文局五十年史料选编（1）[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 399.

*新星出版社编辑部．中国外文局五十年回忆录[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 37, 420-421.

*杨宪益，薛鸿时．漏船载酒译当年[M]. 北京:人民日报出版社，2001: 225.

*杜萌．翻译市场滥译滥编侵权现状调查[N]. 法制日报，2009-03-02 (8).

*中国翻译协会．中国翻译年鉴﹔2009~2010年[M]. 北京:外文出版社，2011: 241, 232.

==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in my country or Western countries, the long tradition of translation has become the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization.In addition, translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication.This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.

Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This paper first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来,就存在翻译.翻译与人类的历史并道而驰,甚至先于历史记载.无论在我国,还是西方国家,悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

Since the 1980s, Chinese translation studies have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Ma Zuyi's A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China, and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars. The four climaxes in Chinese translation history promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society in varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

Like China, western translation has a long history. In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should be attributed to the translators. The five climaxes in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and promoted the development of Chinese translation to a certain extent. In fact, when we examine the development of translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts in China and the West together, we find that there are some similarities between them. Especially in the evolution of Chinese and western translation concepts, they have very similar evolution rules.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.And these translation stages have had varying degrees of impact on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)

In the traditional sense, there have been four translation climaxes in China's long history of translation development, leaving many classic comments. From the four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theory and practice in different periods in China. Moreover, these translation climaxes have exerted different influences on the history, culture, society and literature of China, including the development of Chinese translation itself.(Li 2016,132)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The first stage: Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, and it is also the first large-scale, planned and organized translation activity in Chinese history.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation in this period enriched the people's religious beliefs, became the spiritual support of the people at the bottom, promoted the communication between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist classics an integral part of Chinese traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (middle 14th to 19th centuries), there was a second stage of translation in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major shift was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (from the middle of the 14th century to the 19th century), the second climax of translation appeared in Chinese history. This major turn was also decided by the agreement reached by the Chinese and Western countries at that time in order to seek their own interests. Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thoughts and culture in China. At that time, Chinese people with lofty ideals were eager for knowledge and were keen on western advanced science and technology in order to maintain political power.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In this way, the two needs complement each other, and the translation of Western scientific books is increasing. Increased, which promoted the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to narratives and co-translation and compilation.(Liu 2016,148)

In this way, the mutual complementation of the two needs led to the gradual formation of the atmosphere of translation of Western science books, thus promoting the great development of science and technology translation at that time. In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the translation office, translated books by western translation and Chinese translation, that is, foreign scholars interpret, and Chinese scholars write and polish. During this period, the main representatives of translation activities were Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao. Xu Guangqi, in particular, is known as "the father of translation of Western learning". He does not understand foreign languages. His translation is mainly made by listening to people's dictation, co-translation and compilation with others.(Liu 2016,148)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

He proposed that the translation of Western history books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must first translate."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

He put forward that the translation of western historical books should be prioritized and step by step. And put forward his own translation thought: "if you want to surpass, you must be able to understand; before you can feel pain, you must translate first." Although there are many translation achievements in this period, there is no systematic translation theory. Although there were clear translation principles in the later period, their main purpose was to maintain their rule by learning advanced western technology.(Liu 2016,148)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil and internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist ideas demanded to unite to resist the aggression of Western countries, and proposed reforms to strengthen themselves.Translation in this period is the boundary of modern Chinese translation history. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation. The scale and influence of its translation activities all surpassed any period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil, internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist thoughts demanded to unite to resist the invasion of western countries and proposed to strengthen through reform. Translation in this period is a watershed in the history of modern translation in China. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation, and the scale and influence of its translation activities have surpassed any other period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

At the end of the 19th century, western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong and Yan Fu was a translation behavior driven by the sense of national anxiety, which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchange. In particular, Yan Fu's translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance has a profound impact on translators' translation activities. "Faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance" in Yan Fu's interpretation refer to "using the pre Han Chinese grammar and syntax". At that time, Lin Shu was also a representative translator. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, that is to say, the target and effect of translation should be achieved.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

When Lin Shu is translating, he emphasizes on subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original work.A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent.During the May 4th Movement, the "New Youth" magazine was launched and began to translate western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representatives such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适）, and Zhou Zuoren （周作人）all attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

In his translation, Lin Shu emphasizes the involvement of subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original works. A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent. During the May 4th movement, New Youth magazine began to translate and introduce western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representative figures such as Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

The translation activities in this period, both the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge, and the dissemination of advanced ideas, show its important position in the history of translation. Moreover, the audience in this period also expanded from intellectuals to some people, broadened the vision of Chinese people, increased their insight, and played a good catalytic role in the modern ideological circle.(Liu 2016,149)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Since the Reform and Opening up, China and the western world have a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development. From the beginning of learning from modern and contemporary western translation theories to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and paying attention to interdisciplinary comprehensive innovation, China has made unprecedented progress in translation practice and theory. For example, cultural schools, structuralism, postcolonialism and other translation theories have been translated into China, and literary works involve various fields such as politics, economy, culture, literature, art and so on.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

The representative figures at this time include Liu Miqing, Tan Zaixi, Huang Long, etc. among them, Tan Zaixi compiled a brief history of western translation. The book absorbed the relevant research results at home and abroad, narrated and commented on the representative tasks, translated works and schools of thought in the field of western translation in various historical periods, especially since the 20th century, and the mutual relationship between translation practice and translation theory The process of promotion, evolution and development has been analyzed and discussed in simple terms, which has promoted the formation of systematic translation theories in China to a certain extent.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.

In this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practice skills and translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective ideas to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes. Translation studies have changed from a single paradigm in the past to a multi paradigm study nowadays. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding the research field, and effectively promoting the development of China's translation research.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 16:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as our country, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

Like China, western translation has a long history. In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should be attributed to the translators. From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European community, literary, artistic, scientific and trade exchanges between countries were carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of western translation can be divided into five stages. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Greek translation of the Old Testament by seventy people; strictly speaking, the first translation is Homer's epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in Latin. Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC and has a history of more than 2000 years. It is an important part of the whole European development history.(Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible. Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

Ancient translation mainly revolves around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the Old Testament from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation. At the end of the fourth century B.C., the powerful Greek slave society began to decline, while the less developed Rome gradually became stronger. At this time, Greece had a certain cultural foundation and was still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may begin in this period.It was only in the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The introduction of Greek culture may have begun in this period. It was not until the middle of the third century B.C. that translation of written records began to appear. Andronicus, Nevius and enius, known as the three great originators of Roman literature, and other excellent translators have translated a large number of Greek drama works in Latin. This large-scale translation first opened up the situation of European local translation. It introduced Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and played an important role in the inheritance of ancient Greek literature by Rome and later generations of Europe.(Tan 1985,36)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activities in the fourth to sixth centuries AD were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages one after another.（Tan 2004,79）

The translation activities from the fourth century to the sixth century were mainly religious in nature. In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop religious culture serving its own interests. As the source and spiritual weapon of Christianity, the Bible has naturally become the most concerned classic in religious circles. In 384 A.D., Jerome, entrusted by the Pope, compiled a translation of the New Testament, that is, the universal Bible. This indicates that the translation of the Bible has achieved the same important status as the translation of secular literature. As Europe entered the feudal society, religious translation got more market, and the Bible was translated into various languages.（Tan 2004,79）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the Middle Ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Eastern literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

In the middle ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Oriental literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arab academic research promoted the development of western translation. At that time, western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is a rare friendly contact between Christians and Muslims in history. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into ancient Syrian and brought them back to Bagdad. Bagdad became an important translation center, and many Greek classics were translated into Arabic. Later, in the 11th century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic and Translation Center, and became a "Translation Institute" similar to Bagdad. Its translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years and had a great influence.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14-16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

From the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance movement took place in Europe. It was a great movement of Ideological and literary innovation and a great development in the history of western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, western translators constantly found new literary fields, excavated new cultural heritages and transplanted new ideas to their native land. At this time, translation went deep into the ideological, political, philosophical, literary, religious and other fields, involving some of the main works of ancient, modern and contemporary. Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, which marked the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther King pioneered the religious reform. He translated the Bible through the people's language, which laid the foundation for the standardization and standardization of German, and played an important role in the unification of German. In France, the famous man translated by amio became an immortal literary translation in French and even the whole western translation history The translation of the history and literary works of Greece and Rome provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of autocratic monarchy in Britain, contributed to the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and made Britain earlier embark on the road of modern nationalization.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

All in all, the ideological liberation movement of the Renaissance in Europe around 1500 had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially Western European society, and cultural translation played a crucial role as a bridge in this ideological liberation movement. It also shows that translation plays a huge role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

In a word, the Renaissance around 1500 AD had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially the Western European society. Cultural translation played an important role in the ideological liberation movement. At the same time, it also showed that translation played an important role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace. The economy was restored, production was guaranteed, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are the important material basis for the development and progress of translation. Compared with the past, translation in the new era has changed a lot. First of all, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation in this period expanded to the fields of science and technology and commerce. Secondly, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few senior intellectuals.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there are even professional teams with special training. Moreover, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has been accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays an important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The form of translation during this period has also undergone great changes, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development. It is a challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is also a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

During this period, the forms of translation also changed greatly, such as the enhancement of the degree of specialization in translation, the establishment of higher translation education and the cultivation of professional translators. In particular, the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized. Since the British and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have gradually shown their vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous process. It is not only a challenge to the traditional manual translation for thousands of years, but also a revolution with far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

Through the introduction of the history of Chinese translation and that of western translation in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the two in terms of translation concepts and the evolution process, especially the evolution laws of Chinese and western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale translation activities in China and the West are closely related to the translation of religious documents. In the west, it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of the two thousand year old translation concepts of "the original is supreme" and "faithful to the original". Looking back on history, when translators in ancient China and the West translated these religious documents, they must have a kind of piety and absolute loyalty to the original text to translate word for word, for fear of distorting God's will and Buddha's teachings. Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has changed from religious literature and literary masterpieces to non literary practical literature, such as economy, science and technology, commerce, entertainment, etc. The focus of translation has changed from the original text to the reader.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages in various countries has some obvious commonalities in both the West and China.In the West, Martin Luther's Bible translation has played a very important role in the unification and development of German and modern German.The English translation of the "Bible" also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and expressive means.As for China, Buddhist translation has enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May Fourth Movement, which promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular.The translation in the new era has also enriched the vocabulary to a certain extent.For example, the Chinese "人山人海" translates into English as "people mountain people sea", and it is even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Thirdly, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages of different countries has some obvious similarities in the West and China. In the west, Martin Luther's Bible translation plays a very important role in the unification and development of German as well as modern German. The English translation of the Bible also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and means of expression. As for China, Buddhist translation enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May 4th movement, and promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular. And now the new era of translation, to a certain extent, has enriched the vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word "人山人海" is translated into English as "people mountain people sea", even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation also plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

Finally, both Chinese and western, translation plays an important role in transmitting foreign social and cultural values. In the west, for example, during the Renaissance, the excavation, dissemination and development of humanistic spirit benefited greatly from the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics. In China, Li Zhizao and Xu Guangqi's translation of western social science masterpieces at the end of Ming and early Qing Dynasty broadened the horizon of Chinese people and promoted the process of China's modernization. In addition, the translation of Western literature and drama works by Yan Fu and Lu Xun during the May 4th Movement refreshed the Chinese people's world outlook, increased the Chinese people's insight, and played a good catalytic role in the modern ideological circle.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In the last section, the author expounds that the evolution of Chinese and western translation history is very similar from four aspects. Of course, the development of Chinese and western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and node, but also in some aspects it is quite different.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale translation activities in China and the West are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and western social and political life is different. Religion plays an important role in western society.(Xie 2009,51)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In the Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and human beings, but also the maker and arbiter of the political and ethical order of the world. The Bible is the primary source of western moral standards. Therefore, the importance of Bible translation can be imagined. In China, the imperial power is greater than the divine power. The monarch claims to be the son of heaven and exercises power according to the mandate of heaven and enjoys supreme authority. Religion can be spread and developed only when it is supported and utilized by the imperial power. Its essence is the tool to maintain the rule and has never become a religious act of the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to do harm to the ethics of feudal rule. Once it did, it would be banned and eliminated. The "three martial arts and one sect" in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese etiquette dispute" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features. Therefore, the influence of Buddhist Scripture Translation in China exists more in folk culture, and its influence is more embodied in a subtle form, such as the change of world outlook, the infiltration of language, the borrowing of Buddhist Classic public viewing plot in literary works and so on. Moreover, Chinese society takes blood relationship as the link and family as the unit. It is blood relationship that closely connects family members. Festivals, weddings and funerals are always carried out in family or family units, rather than under the auspices of the church in the West.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the west, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation and ethics, focusing on whether translation theory has practical effect, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the process of translation. The Western Christian culture has formed a sharp contrast with China's Confucianism in this respect. They are more thoughtful and systematic in their thinking and systematic in translation.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

They think that the key point is to describe what kind of theory exists behind the practice of translation, and how to understand translation and explain translation from the perspective of theory. This makes the development path of the two translation theories different. If there are still many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of translation activities between China and the west before the 1950s, the differences in the development trend of translation theories between the two countries will be more and more obvious in the later stage, especially from the end of the 19th century: the western translation theories have realized systematization earlier.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of certain theories, and the achievements of relevant disciplines are fully utilized to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly diversified, which reflects the strong spirit of scientism. However, for a long time, Chinese translation theory has remained at the level of translation practice experience and perception, which makes subjective feelings to a great extent. In particular, the advocates of traditional translation theories pay attention to the artistic conception of "everything in silence" and give people more space for association and comprehension, but they can not make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
It is precisely based on the above-mentioned understanding of the history of Chinese and Western translation from different aspects that "similarities have differences, and differences have similarities", so I think that the history of Chinese and Western translation development should be described, analyzed and sorted in the same framework. It is possible.In this way, we can not only emphasize the common ground in the development of Chinese and Western translation, find the rules among them, but also show the uniqueness of the development of the two.

Based on the above understanding of the history of Chinese and western translation from different aspects, I think it is possible to describe, analyze and sort out the history of Chinese and western translation in the same framework. By doing so, we can not only emphasize the common points in the development of Chinese and western translation, but also find out the rules of them. At the same time, we can show their own uniqueness in the process of development.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This article adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

This paper adopts the method of synchronic parallel narration and diachronic combing to combine the two seemingly unrelated development threads of Chinese and western translation history as a whole, analyzes and describes the development stages of Chinese and western translation history according to the mainstream translation objects in specific times, and explores and reveals them It shows the internal law of the evolution of Chinese and western translation concepts.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable. Whether religious, political or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture. In the process of understanding the history of Chinese and western translation, people also feel the cultural collision. Not only in the long history of the past, but also in today's 21st century, translation is a bridge and link between countries and an indispensable existence in people's social, political and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we can not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is also an art.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Chinese and western language, literature, philosophy, religion and other forms of cultural exchange, not only need artistic expression, but also need rigorous academic attitude and systematic theory to support. Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of translation academic theories and skills from different perspectives, which has promoted the progress and development of society.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for translation is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy"(Bassnett, 2004). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary"says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc."and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs.The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language.

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home",Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized, that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text.Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land. He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.”Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 </center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars.

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of four chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two is a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is statement of translation quality assessment. Then we come to the last part, Conclusion.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul.

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko’s little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko’s memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression.

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested.

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from HowNet, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters(2017). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(2018). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(2015).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author’s thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, in an effort to foster the application of House’s model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province.

The evaluation depends on the matching degree between original text andtranslation. The higher the matching degree is, the better the translation quality is. The quality evaluation of the translated text needs to state mismatching degree of each dimension in the whole context, that is, the description of the quantity of covert errors (errors in context dimension) and overt errors (referential mismatcher or grammatical violation of target language system).(House 1977, 30)

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House’s TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people’s mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won’t block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practised violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people’s mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won’t influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn’t adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with “for” for causal relation and “as” for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn’t, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

“There's nothing like” is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that “a timely reminder of one’s personal obligations” is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although “so much” and “so quickly” modify the verb “change”, we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator’s understanding on author’s attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author’s attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2：

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko’s mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text “eventually” signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3：

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits “be perfectly all right if”, which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko’s old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko’s husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn’t take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro’s colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as “rabble” and “like” are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation “正如” is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===
The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi’s Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House’s model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.

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*Li Xiaolin & He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.

*Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].

*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

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*Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.

==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--韦洪朗 Wei Honglang,202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===Introduction===
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
I.Introduction
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
2.1 Literal translation
2.2 Free translation
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
2.3.1 On words
2.3.2 On sentence structures
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation
III.Domestication and Foreignization
3.1 Domestication
3.2 Foreignization
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
3.3.1 On politics
3.3.2 On culture
3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
4.2.2 domestication and free translation
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
V.Conclusion
References

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline

I.Introduction

II.Literal Translation and Free Translation

2.1 Literal translation

2.2 Free translation

2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation

2.3.1 On words

2.3.2 On sentence structures

2.3.3 On rhetorical means

2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation

III.Domestication and Foreignization

3.1 Domestication

3.2 Foreignization

3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization

3.3.1 On politics

3.3.2 On culture

3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization

IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation

4.2.2 domestication and free translation

4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation

V.Conclusion

References
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===I.Introduction ===
I.Introduction
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

I.Introduction
In history, arguments between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those times, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem of choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation, “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect the Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominant influence at that time, which did not change until the late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116). --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST into TT, especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his A Textbook of Translation, proposed that the common and only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

When translating was seen as the shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark, in his ''A Textbook of Translation'', proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means that those translating methods exist for dealing problems that happened during the process when translating( Ma Shikui 2012,20). The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for an appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do. --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 Literal translation ===
2.1 Literal translation
Literal translation is the one chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of The Bible in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

The literal translation refers to when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly reproduced, by adhering to the strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of ''Bible'' in the middle age I showed before. But as the argument and relevant theories developing till the modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or fewer differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249).--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 Free translation===
2.2 Free translation
It’s better if we can have it both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
Here are some specific examples of contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===
2.3.1 On words:
"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？
Free translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===
2.3.2 On sentence structures:
"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!
Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
"If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。
Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===
2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation
According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL and free translation considers more about TL users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===
III.Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way. Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===
3.1 Domestication
Domestication refers to a translation strategy of dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A.Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===
3.2 Foreignization
Venuti puts translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
Examples for domesticating method and foreignizing method:

===3.3.1 On Politics===
3.3.1 On Politics：동해 & にほんかい
Since the 19th century, the world has experienced two world wars and the Cold War period. During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, which made different ideologies and political positions have a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===
3.3.2 On Culture：“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.
Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows well how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===
3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above analysis, it can be seen that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and necessity. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved. On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics. " (Sun Zhili 2011,27) Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
The same point: First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the original text can be sacrificed.
The different points: The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation.
Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these twopairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)
(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子
(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果
The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation do, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even quoted it in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from the Bible, which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===
4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation
Similarly, the shadow of free translation can often be found in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)
(1)drink like a fish 牛饮
(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦
As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, and there is no such statement way in China, which leads to the consequences that translating versions are difficult to understand. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting, but also easy to understand.
However, when doing actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies.
(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）
We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.
The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. At this one, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.
(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)
Kill two birds with one stone.
Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===
V.Conclusion
Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, then we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach the translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange. Therefore, in a sense, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===
References
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.
Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.
Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.
Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.
Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.
Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei==

===Abstract===
Abstract
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.
Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
Key Words: functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies

===摘要===
摘要
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。

===关键字===
关键词：功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
References

===Outline===
Outline

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
1. Introduction
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.
As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namelyevaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.
Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent
specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)
Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).
Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.
It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.
According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.
The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is
an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of cultural
transformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive
factor for the target text.
In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural
context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”
(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.
“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).
Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.
Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.
With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.
Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.
On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.
Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
3.1 Garden culture.
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.
(1) 排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole。
Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.
(2) 从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.
Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.
(3) 主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.
Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
3.2 Historical culture.
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:
(4) 此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。
Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.
Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
3.3 Religious culture.
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.
(5) 主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.
Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
4. Conclusion
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.
The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.
Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

===References===
References
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Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.
Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.
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贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004
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==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed issue in translation studies. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people of different languages can understand each other's culture. Due to the differences of social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, translators need to compare the two methods and weigh their advantages and disadvantages. This paper mainly analyzes the literal translation and free translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs in the process of Chinese translation, and explores the differences of different idioms translated by different methods, so as to help students and translators better carry out translation practice.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，需要译者对这两种方法进行比较，衡量利弊。本文主要分析俄语成语和谚语在汉译过程中的直译和意译，探寻不同成语用不同方法翻译所产生的差别在以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

Fedorov, a translation theorist of the former Soviet Union, believes that "translation is an activity that expresses something that has been expressed in one language as a unity of content and form, and expressed accurately and completely in another language." Balhudarov, a translation theorist, once wrote: "translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content, that is, meaning." Lu Xun once advocated literal translation. He said, "translation must take both sides into consideration;(Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay will take the Chinese translation of Russian idioms and proverbs as examples to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages, and their relationships, in order to help students who learn Russian understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian Idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of Russian national wisdom and immortal fossils in Russian, are one of the best materials for China to understand and learn Russian history, culture and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, Russian and Chinese have formed different cultural backgrounds, which have caused great difficulties for Russian people to further understand Russia. This paper will take the Chinese translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs as an example to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their advantages and disadvantages, and their relationship, so as to help Russian students better understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.

In different periods and countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate on literal translation and free translation has always existed.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The contradiction between modern literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

The contradiction between literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of the two translation methods. Sun guiding, a translator, believes that literal translation is rigidly based on the structure of the original words and sentences, without considering whether the Chinese language is smooth or natural; while free translation is to use Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as far as possible in addition to specialized subject nouns, so as to achieve the effect of transmitting the meaning of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Du zuozhou, former president of Wuhan University, believes that literal translation is to translate word for word according to the original text; free translation is to translate according to the original meaning, and the translation is more appropriate to the common grammar of the translated language. Meng Xiancheng, an educator, believes that literal translation is a translation with different technical correctness. Literal translation refers to faithful and correct translation according to the original text; free translation refers to the translation of the general idea of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Guangqian said: "The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. " Feng Shize believes that "translation and literal translation are up-and-down relations; between literal translation and free translation is the left-right relationship. If the reversal of word order and other methods are free translation, then the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation besides free translation. "(Feng Shize 1981,10)

Zhu Guangqian said, "literal translation" refers to the literal translation of the original text. Every word is translated one word at a time, and the order of each sentence is not changed. The so-called "free translation" is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, without having to follow the literal and sequential order of the original text. " Feng Shize thinks that "the relationship between translation and literal translation is up-down, while that between literal translation and free translation is left-right relationship. They are involved in each other and must become a system. If the word order is reversed as free translation, the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation to speak of except free translation. "(Feng Shize 1981,10) --[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Moreover, in the process of translation, there are many differences between the source language and the target language in terms of word order, grammar, form change and rhetoric. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. Therefore, the translator should consider the actual semantic, background and other factors to convey the content of the original text and reproduce the language style of the original work in an appropriate way without losing the original meaning of the sentence.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, western translation theories could not be widely spread. However, within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to those of western translation theories were formed and developed, and two major translation theory schools, language school and literary school, were further divided. To some extent, the debate between the two schools reflects the debate between translators' groups on literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

However, feodorov's view was refuted by the literary school represented by Kashin. The school of literature and art holds that aesthetics is the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. As a matter of fact, literature and art school emphasizes the translation of literary works, which belongs to the specific translation theory, while the study of language school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of works of all subjects including literary works. The debate between linguistic school and literary school provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Idioms of different nationalities are not only the most dynamic and expressive units in different languages, but also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, which records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical location and customs between China and Russia, the national culture reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its image. When translating idioms, both meaning and image should be considered. Although there are great cultural differences between China and Russia, many commonalities of human beings, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Literal translation ====

Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

In short, literal translation refers to a method of translating the original text directly without changing the language features and styles of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. The advantage of literal translation in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is that it can express the meaning of idioms intuitively and faithfully, and maintain the unique style and image of the original text. However, the disadvantage is that the translated idioms may not be understood by the Chinese people. This is because the historical and cultural background, grammatical structure and language world picture of Chinese and Russian are different, and it is easy to form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Vocabulary gaps between languages are a common phenomenon, causing many difficulties for translation. There are many reasons for the vacancy of vocabulary, such as cultural reasons such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs, and linguistic reasons. There are roughly two ways to fill the language gaps — paraphrasing by replacing the image.and discarding images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Another method commonly used in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. The lexical gap between languages is a common phenomenon, which causes many difficulties in translation. The causes of lexical vacancy are various, such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs and other cultural reasons, as well as linguistic reasons. There are generally two ways to fill the gaps in language: replacing images for free translation and abandoning images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)
我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)
直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。
意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)
直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。
意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下
意译：如释重负

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉
意译：不三不四，不伦不类

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀
意译：远亲不如近邻

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰
意译：笑里藏刀

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点
意译：人无完人

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁
意译：三思而后行(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. The other situation is the experience that the Russians summed up in their long labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb, but the Chinese have not summed up this experience, so translating Russian proverbs into Chinese literally, Chinese people can understand them at a glance and increase their knowledge of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The translation of Russian proverbs by literal translation not only maintains the original language, but also transplants the unique image language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the horizons of Chinese readers, but also enriches the way of expression in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs expressing the same semantics use different metaphors. Some Russian proverbs are difficult to retain the original image in the process of translation into Chinese. If literally translated according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translation is difficult to be accepted by the Chinese, and even misunderstood may occur.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text to readers, we can readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of a correct understanding of the meaning of the original text, and use standard Chinese expressions to reproduce Russian proverbs to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of lexical structure, syntactic structure, expression methods and metaphors. In many cases, translators understand the original meaning but do not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works that are more contradictory between bilinguals, translators often use free translation methods. When translating works that are consistent or have more common points than contradictions or conflicts between bilinguals, translators tend to choose literal translation .

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

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*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现.

作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circles first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that both seeking truth and vulgarity. (Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38)That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a typical literal translation school. He insists that faith first and smoothness second even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposed. From the New culture Movement(from 1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both truth and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only using one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faith first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should make the translation be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in ancient China, put forward that avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which caused the translation quality to be too low. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree between the two in the way of combining literal translation and free translation at the same time to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1.Dialectic thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationship is the key to understand and grasp the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally apply it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems: one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definition and application and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Word-for-word translation===
Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form. (Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's work of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction is regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is parataxis while English is hypotaxis. (Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1)That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with little modifier and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words into only a sentence.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjective are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems freely arranged.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structure to deal well. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, continuing word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is not intelligible for reader. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Over free translation===
Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, such as the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

When we translate from English to Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, free translation does not mean random translation. The latter means making up translated sentence by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation. (Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as corresponding one of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up translated sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as a correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Dialectic translation===
Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only not the original form. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If in literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while if in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. While although the former are totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In another word, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In other words, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keep the original content and style by use of the same or similar expression as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)

Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===
Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. President Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works. (Wu Shuang, 2018, 178)On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning. ( Yang Yin 2019, 161)So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation. (He Lirong 2018,43) For example" have a wolf in the stomach" means"饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be free translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into"致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language are second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conformity to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not be achieved.

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been achieved.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as the original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation is unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification.

The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgment before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In he first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. While understanding the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his understanding.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his or her understanding.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Eugene. Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

No matter which translation standard, it is impossible to meet by only literal translation or only free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. So, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and achieve a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification.

Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different form and style, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi,202070080627==
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation bases on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward mainly two viewpoints. Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped.

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation us almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22) Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form.

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes.

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function.

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them.

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative. What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)
"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

===References===
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='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

===References===

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[2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).

[3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.

[4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003.

[5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.

[6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.

[7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.

[8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.

[9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.

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--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen==

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the characteristics of translating English long sentences, mainly from three aspects: cross-cultural communication, emphasis on form and clear language logic. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, splitting translation, synthesis and insertion.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分从英汉对比的角度剖析了英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，分为三个方面，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分阐述了翻译英语长句的特点，主要有跨文化交际性、重视形式以及明确逻辑关系三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、综合法和插入法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Introduction===

===2.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.
The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:
(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.
(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.
(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.
(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===3.Differences in sentence structure between English and Chinese===

English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture.

===3.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis. Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses(Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible.
Example 1:
Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.
人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。
In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. As the eye of news, the translation quality of news headlines directly affects the effectiveness of news dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions of news headlines and the translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward translation strategies for Chinese-English news headlines, aiming at restoring the concise feature of news and realizing the purpose of news dissemination and social value.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; translation strategies

===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===1. Introduction===
With the further development of the world economy and culture, news is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet or newspapers and magazines to learn about current events. But we are confused by thousands of news and the information they carry, because we are all exposed to a world where massive information is surrounding. There is no doubt that because we can read too much news, some news has been ignored. Therefore, a proper headline is the most important element which can be regarded as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are always vivid and eye-catching in newspapers, in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, the translator must learn how to effectively screen and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it attractive to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy, the implementation of reform and opening-up and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what the translator should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are lots of researches about C-E news translation and news headline translation. However, researches on Chinese-English news headlines translation are very few. According to statistics from CNKI, there are only two pages of researches on Chinese – English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is of great importance.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines. Then the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===2. Overview of News Headlines===

==== 2.1 Definition of news and news headlines====

News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen and it is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and propagate ideas and express information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, give essential information about, or interest readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====2.2 Features of news headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture and structure.

===== 2.2.1 Grammatical features=====

2.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成巴'''黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines.

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

2.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including individual measures, conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct feature of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which save the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tells the time of happening from. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====2.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The usual figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, includes metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc... They aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers.

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 2.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical text genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or nation. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines,

=====2.2.4 Structural features =====
To achieve headline’s peculiarity and simplicity, some punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often used in Chinese news headlines. Though differences exist in this area, the pursuit of using punctuation marks in the same – to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The usual rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)
[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题
[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job

====2.3 Functions of news headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

====2.3.2 Expressive Function ====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using subjective words or rhetoric devices.

=====2.3.3 Aesthetic function=====
“This is language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences, clauses and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====2.3.4 Vocative function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after reading the news.

===3. Skopos Theory===

As has been mentioned in the last section, news headlines and their translation are function-oriented. The fundamental function or the “Skopos” is to attract the readers. Therefore, in this section, we will discuss Skopos theory and its three rules.

====3.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, which formed an early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss takes the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that when we translate, we should consider the function of the text.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argues that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has purposes, which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action. Some of other forms of translational action may relate to actions which giving like a consultant. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields. Besides, Skopos theory has three principal rules which will be illustrated in the following section.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 3.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====

There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 3.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29)

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41)

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are intended for the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means”

=====3.2.2 Coherence Rule=====

The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) That is to say that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 3.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from intratextual coherence, there is intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text, which is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. This means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and thus, any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationship between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and both belong to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity with the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139)

====3.3 Summary ====

This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, which intends to lay a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headline is to convey information and attract readers. In light of these, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.

===4. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===

As mentioned in the last chapter, Skopos theory specifies the purpose of translation. As far as the author concerns, the skopos of Chinese headline translation is to transfer information of the latest events that happened in China to English readers. All sorts of translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed.

====4.1 Criteria of News headline translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. For a translator, the first and foremost thing is to be loyal to the content of the source language and convey it in a precise way, particularly for the translation of news headlines. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth for reading. This means the translation should be easy for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability ranked at the top of reasons for buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, translation of news headlines should consider readability. If the rule of fidelity is viewed from the perspective of translation content, then the rule of readability can be treated as put forward from the perspective of translation form. The primary aim of a news headline is to arouse readers' interests as much as possible. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern related to news language. In other words, the style of the target language and the source language should remain the same. Style is considered to be an essential and important portion in translation. Translation of news headlines is without exception. So, the translator must take serious consideration to the grammar and diction of English, and make sure that the version of a new style is suitable when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation is the most significant one. It implies that the news headline translation should be carried out and complete at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, timeliness of news determines the rapidity of news translation, especially the translation of news headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies of E-C News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation strategies including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation.

=====4.2.1 Literal translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples:

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”is translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量”is translated to “jeans sales”, and “骤减” is translated into “slump”, which is exactly a literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒” is translated to “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测” is translated into “antigen tests”, “获批” is translated to “approved”. We can see that in this example, the form and style and even the tense and voice of the source text and target text are the same. So, it is a literal translation.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is a literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language.

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====

Most news headlines carry certain backgrounds, which are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory, because the purpose of such translating is to convey the information useful to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually carry rich cultural contents. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news.

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====

Because the literal meaning of the sentence does not work in the situation of the utterance, the translators have to find vague information and convey it to the target readers. In news headline translation, special information needs to restructure.

Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)

[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

====4.2.6 Adaptation ====

Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers.

===4.3 Summary===
This chapter introduces criteria and strategies of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can served as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===5. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.
==== limitations ====
However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

===References===

* Newmark, P.A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 40-42.

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* Vermeer, H. J. Skopos and Translationsauftrag – Aufsatze [M]. Second Edition. Heidelberg: University, 1989.

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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。
随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化促进交流。翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
在一些公众场合，笔者注意到不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语” 公益广告存在，本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and enhance their understanding of China.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin‟s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn the Chinese language, others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity to help them learn and better understand China.

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the internationalcommunity, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and suggest translation suggestions.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.
Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.
Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.
Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.
Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.
Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.
Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function. Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemisms such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

2. No Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===
1.Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

2.Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

3.Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

4.Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

5.Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

6.Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

7.Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

8.Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

9.Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

10.Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

===References===
Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion：
Change the order of your contents like：

1. views of Text Type Theory

1.1 Reiss's…..

1.2 Peter …..

1.3 similarities and differences between…

2. Features of Public Service Advertisement

2.1 content

2.2 forms

2.3 similarities and differences between...--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 8

2020-12-18T16:01:57Z

Peng Yongliang: /* References */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=
== Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==

==='''Abstract'''===

== Abstract: ==

==='''key words'''===

==='''摘要'''===

==='''关键字'''===

===Complete transcript of the content of the original work ===

===Same style and manner of writing===

===Equivalent effect===

===Discussion===

===Conclusion===

===Bibliography===

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu==
<center>王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of civilization and broken through the language barrier. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history becomes a basic project of the construction of the discipline. Although there are many differences of translation histories between the Western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights, and have an indelible influence and contribution to translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between the Western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 00:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Keywords===
===Key-words===--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation History of the West; Translation History of China; Comparative Study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society. Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works.(Xie Tianzhen2009,Ⅴ) The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.

No matter in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society. "Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the design of curriculum of Chinese and Western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another, including ''History of Translation in China – before May Fourth''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi, ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works."(Xie Tianzhen 2009,Ⅴ). The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

Western translation activities are rich in a long history. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient time, the middle age, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times===

The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.(Tan Zaixi2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping2009,8) Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas, started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The translation history of Western countries first began in the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC. (Tan Zaixi 2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, Greece began to decay and the Roman had become stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid culture of its own era after Greece. So it soon began large-scale translation activities. The activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping 2009,8). Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome, and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used the Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89) It started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was religious in nature. In this period, translation was mainly related about the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west, Christianity strives to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of the Christianism naturally meant a lot in religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was concerned about religion. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west. Christians strived to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of Christianism naturally meant a lot in the religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. "Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgate) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible".(Quotation missing). This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ all are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement which took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European nation states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's Iliad and Odyssey from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping2009,9) The renaissance played a very important role in the western history of the development of translation, it marked the national language status in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated, simultaneously, it showed the translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Tan Zaixi2000, 91)

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English. (Liu Junping 2009,9) The Renaissance played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation. It marked the status of nationallanguage in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated. Simultaneously, it shows that translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 91) --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory, the world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growing in number or quantity of translation activities, the translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation, and with the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, having made tremendous progress, the translation scale has exceed the past.

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory.The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growth in number or quantity of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. With the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, making tremendous progress. And the translation scale has exceeded the past.(quotation missing)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, they have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 92)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, who have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The Western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 92).--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China. Although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasty, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history." (Ma Zuyi 1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 04:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Sutra should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China,it was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book The Fifty Books of the Mingdu translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,17)

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi 1998,17)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks,(Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' language knowledge , they usually used literal translation. The second perid was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way which was also use the literal translation. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality if translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi1998,82)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period, which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks, (Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of the language, they usually used literal translation. The second period was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to be translated in an organized way but was still translated literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time. (Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills. (Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in the Tang Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, but he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations. (Ma Zuyi1998,82)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra translation has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, the translation of Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, he was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, there appeared translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and improving the level of science in China.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin. He was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West. (Ma Zuyi 1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and the organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty. He made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoting the development of science in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate western natural science books, Under the influence of the reform thought, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. The records of four continents, translated by Liang Jinde, Lin Zexu asked him to do so, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations, His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time and advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of western natural science. Under the influence of the thought of reform, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China. （Ma Zuyi 1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period, translators in this period of time, by comparison with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective regarding source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand, the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang, these scholars had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces and enriched the inner world of the Chinese people, Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientization of translation theory in China.

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th Movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th Movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese. As a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of Western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter into a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translation like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu He puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. That is a literary translation is like the act of transmigration in which the souls, the spirit of the original text remain in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its "reform and open" policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural, and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translations like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the translation of the documents of the United Nations after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. It is like the act of transmigration in which the soul, the spirit of the original text remains in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of the disastrous "cultural revolution", China adopted the "reform and open" policy. Therefore, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

About the religious and translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religious to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of existence form of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of the society.

About the religious translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason. After the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religion to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of society.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of German language and the establishment of modern German, what’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary, in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century in the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German. What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. In the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese. --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kind of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, they have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations.(Tan Zaixi1999)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kinds of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations. (Tan Zaixi 1999, 缺页码)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First is that, the time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is due to the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in the ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially when people in the remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for a destination. So, there is difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations, there will be delay of the communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so it was much convenient and easier for the western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activity.

First, time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes. In ancient times, it took quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially at a long distance. Therefore, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head to a destination. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations. There would be a delay in communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so， it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set an ideal environment for the development of translation activities.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, the position of the religious varies. The different traditional culture of the west and China has made the concept of religious of the two are quite varied from each other. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabulary of their own. In the west, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, in order to consolidate his ruling position, the rulers ruled the people spiritually, and the doctrine of Buddhism was in line with the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

Also, the position of religion varies. The different tradition and culture of the west and China make the concept of religion of the two quite varied. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of the Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture. To consolidate his ruling position, the ruler controlled the people spiritually. The doctrine of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation tradition of the west and China differs. One of the differences of them is the difference between single system and multiple system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation. “because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.” By way of contrast, In terms of space, the western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of multiple system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi2000,15)

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between a single system and a poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese culture.”(Quotation missing) In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China. (Tan Zaixi 2000,15)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese and western translation concepts are different. Then, the translation theories are different. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practicality than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said that: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists are most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation and how to deal with them.” however, western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and China is conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept more challenges less, China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break through dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.

The concept of Chinese and western translation is different. Meanwhile, the translation theory in China and the west varies. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practice than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept fewer challenges. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theory, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to the direction of knowledge, and constantly leading us to explore into the unknown field.

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theories, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will able to learn from the experience and lessons in this development process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学 [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). 中西翻译简史 [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. 南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press武汉大学出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译[Chinese Translation and Western Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播[Translation and Religious Communication]. 中国校外教育理论 Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性[The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors. Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)
(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.
Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things. Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral. In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)
In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story", in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc.
In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.[6]

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425) and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc, but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.
In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc. For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper. As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. [9]In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.
In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan陈缘2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent
“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan
“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family
“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .
But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,

====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132) In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes, such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple. In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity. Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well. Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)
For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.
black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)
black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)
black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions. Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves. We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）
Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others, and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people". In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words. When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate. With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually. However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

===7.Reference ===

*Cai Xiaomin.蔡晓敏.( 2020).中英颜色词的对比与翻译研究[A comparative study of Chinese and English color words and their translation].海外英语[Overseas English],65-66.

*Yan Wen.颜雯.(2012).翻译中颜色词的中西文化内涵差异[The difference between Chinese and Western cultural connotations of color words in translation].青年文学家·语言研究,[ Young Literati-Language Studies],177.

*Jin Yan.金燕.(2012).浅析颜色词在中西文化下的翻译对比差异[An analysis of the contrasting differences in the translation of color words in Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Zhao Fenyan.赵芬艳.(2019).试论中西颜色词的文化内涵及翻译策略[The cultural connotation of Chinese and Western color words and translation strategies].师资校企经验[Faculty school-enterprise experience],232-234.

*Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.

*Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.

*Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of "Green/绿" in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.

*Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.

*Li Dan.李丹.(2018).中西文化差异下的颜色词翻译[Translation of color words under the difference of Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Li Hong.李虹.(2020).汉英颜色词翻译的差异性研究[A study of the differences between Chinese-English color word translations].文化长廊[Cultural Promenade].

*Liu Mengqi, Chen Xingxing.刘梦琪,陈星星.(2020).浅谈颜色词的翻译[A brief discussion on the translation of color words].校园英语翻译研究[Campus English Translation Study].

*Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.

*Xu Yanping.许雁萍.(2009).中西文化中颜色词语的差异及其翻译[The Difference of Color Words in Chinese and Western Culture and Their Translation].文学语言学研究[Literary Linguistics Research],212-213.

*Wang Yu.王羽.(2012).中西文化对比下颜色词的差异比较[Comparison of the differences in color words between Chinese and Western cultures].教育时空[Education Time],151.

*Li Yun, Jia Aiguang.李云,贾爱光.(2020).大学英语教学中英汉基本颜色词翻译对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion on the Translation of English and Chinese Basic Color Words in University English Teaching].校园英语[Campus English],11-21.

*Chen Yuan陈缘.(2020)英汉颜色词的文化差异与翻译[Cultural differences between English and Chinese color words and translation].海外英语[Overseas English],48-49.

==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing==

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>

===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding from a historical perspective, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept. Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. in the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept.

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form.

Mkerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda.

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed.
===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful.

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were doubly condemned without being told; and the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems, one by one, Pound. The crime: infidelity. Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity' of Yan Fu and others.

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal and external. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics.

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, logically debatable. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.

In the author's view, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own value judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one.

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, or to lose the order to translate, or to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (See Lefevere, 1992a: 15)

In short, it means "those who obey me will prosper, those who disobey me will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class.

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise.

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like in taijiquan, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle" (Huiyuan, 1984: 41), which strives for impartiality.

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology.

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Dawan, 1984:24)"

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology (Lefevere, 1992b: 15), but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (op. cit: 18)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue.

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons.

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology.

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians', politically. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation.[8]

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. [8]

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner.

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China.

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China.

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime.

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House.

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes.

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society.

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China.

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained.

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose.

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology.

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases.

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons.

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work.

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will.

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." [13]
IV. Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences. Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews.

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation.

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. [8] And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation.

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. [14] Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations.

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities.

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. [1 In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable.

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.
===Reference books===
*许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.

*吕俊．翻译研究:从文本理论到权利话语[J]．四川外语学院学报，2002，1 (18): 106-109.

*Bassnett, S & Ledever, A. Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 48.

*Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2010: 127-129.

*Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010: 1-70.

*王东风. 一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.

*周扬. 社会主义现实主义——中国文学前进的道路 [N].人民日报，1953-01-11 (1).

*文记东. 1949~1966年的中苏文化交流[M]，哈尔滨:黑龙江大学出版社，2011: 101, 144.

*马祖毅．中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.

*人民出版社马列著作编辑室．马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作中文本书目（1950~1983年）[Z]. 北京：人民出版社，1985.

*周东元，亓文公．中国外文局五十年史料选编（1）[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 399.

*新星出版社编辑部．中国外文局五十年回忆录[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 37, 420-421.

*杨宪益，薛鸿时．漏船载酒译当年[M]. 北京:人民日报出版社，2001: 225.

*杜萌．翻译市场滥译滥编侵权现状调查[N]. 法制日报，2009-03-02 (8).

*中国翻译协会．中国翻译年鉴﹔2009~2010年[M]. 北京:外文出版社，2011: 241, 232.

==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in my country or Western countries, the long tradition of translation has become the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization.In addition, translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication.This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.

Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This paper first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来,就存在翻译.翻译与人类的历史并道而驰,甚至先于历史记载.无论在我国,还是西方国家,悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

Since the 1980s, Chinese translation studies have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Ma Zuyi's A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China, and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars. The four climaxes in Chinese translation history promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society in varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

Like China, western translation has a long history. In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should be attributed to the translators. The five climaxes in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and promoted the development of Chinese translation to a certain extent. In fact, when we examine the development of translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts in China and the West together, we find that there are some similarities between them. Especially in the evolution of Chinese and western translation concepts, they have very similar evolution rules.(Xu 2018,5)--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.And these translation stages have had varying degrees of impact on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)
====2.1 The first stage:Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (middle 14th to 19th centuries), there was a second stage of translation in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major shift was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

In this way, the two needs complement each other, and the translation of Western scientific books is increasing. Increased, which promoted the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to narratives and co-translation and compilation.(Liu 2016,148)

He proposed that the translation of Western history books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must first translate."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil and internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist ideas demanded to unite to resist the aggression of Western countries, and proposed reforms to strengthen themselves.Translation in this period is the boundary of modern Chinese translation history. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation. The scale and influence of its translation activities all surpassed any period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

When Lin Shu is translating, he emphasizes on subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original work.A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent.During the May 4th Movement, the "New Youth" magazine was launched and began to translate western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representatives such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适）, and Zhou Zuoren （周作人）all attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.（Ma 2000,46）

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as our country, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible. Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may begin in this period.It was only in the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The translation activities in the fourth to sixth centuries AD were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages one after another.（Tan 2004,79）

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the Middle Ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Eastern literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14-16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

All in all, the ideological liberation movement of the Renaissance in Europe around 1500 had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially Western European society, and cultural translation played a crucial role as a bridge in this ideological liberation movement. It also shows that translation plays a huge role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

The form of translation during this period has also undergone great changes, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development. It is a challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is also a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

Third, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages in various countries has some obvious commonalities in both the West and China.In the West, Martin Luther's Bible translation has played a very important role in the unification and development of German and modern German.The English translation of the "Bible" also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and expressive means.As for China, Buddhist translation has enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May Fourth Movement, which promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular.The translation in the new era has also enriched the vocabulary to a certain extent.For example, the Chinese "人山人海" translates into English as "people mountain people sea", and it is even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation also plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
It is precisely based on the above-mentioned understanding of the history of Chinese and Western translation from different aspects that "similarities have differences, and differences have similarities", so I think that the history of Chinese and Western translation development should be described, analyzed and sorted in the same framework. It is possible.In this way, we can not only emphasize the common ground in the development of Chinese and Western translation, find the rules among them, but also show the uniqueness of the development of the two.

This article adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life.At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

===References===
Chen Fang 陈芳.(2016).西方翻译史的文化演进——评《西方翻译简史》[The Cultural Evolution of Western Translation History——A Review of "A short history of translation in the West"].当代教育学(06)Contemporary Education(2).

Gong Yicai 龚亿财.(2020).论翻译在第三次翻译高潮中的特点及社会功能[On the features and social functions of translation in the third translation climax].吉林广播电视大学学报(Total No.217)Journal of Jilin Radio and TV University.

Li Yin 李颖.(2016).从翻译史上的几个重要时期看中国翻译理论与实践的发展[Viewing the development of Chinese translation theory and practice from several important periods in the history of translation].湖北经济学院学报(Vol13 No.10)Journal of Hubei University of Economics.

Liu Qiaoling 刘巧玲.(2016).从中国翻译史的四次高潮看主要译论及读者影响[Main translation theories and readers' influence from the four climaxes of Chinese translation history].黑龙江生态工程职业学院学报(Vol.29 No.5)Journal of Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A short history of translation in the West].商务印书馆The Commercial Press of Hongkong.

Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2010)中西翻译史整体观探索[An exploration of the holistic view of Chinese and Western translation history].东方翻译(02)East Journal of Translation(4-8).

='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for (translation) is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy". 2004:240). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary" (revised edition) says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc." (2012:353) and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” (Ibid.: 127) There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs. (Venuti, 2001: 240) The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997: 43-44) And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language (ibid).

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home", (oc20 ) Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized (o￡.:16-17), that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text. (Venuti, 2001:240). Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:59). Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land (ibid.). He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.” (Venuti, 1992: 13). Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 </center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars.

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of four chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two is a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is statement of translation quality assessment. Then we come to the last part, Conclusion.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul.

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko’s little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko’s memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression.

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested.

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from HowNet, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters(2017). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(2018). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(2015).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author’s thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, in an effort to foster the application of House’s model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province.

The evaluation depends on the matching degree between original text andtranslation. The higher the matching degree is, the better the translation quality is. The quality evaluation of the translated text needs to state mismatching degree of each dimension in the whole context, that is, the description of the quantity of covert errors (errors in context dimension) and overt errors (referential mismatcher or grammatical violation of target language system).(House 1977, 30)

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House’s TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people’s mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won’t block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practised violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people’s mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won’t influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn’t adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with “for” for causal relation and “as” for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn’t, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

“There's nothing like” is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that “a timely reminder of one’s personal obligations” is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although “so much” and “so quickly” modify the verb “change”, we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator’s understanding on author’s attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author’s attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2：

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko’s mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text “eventually” signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3：

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits “be perfectly all right if”, which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko’s old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko’s husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn’t take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro’s colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as “rabble” and “like” are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation “正如” is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===
The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi’s Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House’s model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.

===References===

*Awla, Y. N. (2019). The The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'': An Eco-critical Study. ''Journal of University of Raparin''. 1-18.

*House, J. (1977) ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment''. Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*House, J. (1997) ''Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised''. German: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*Newmark, P. (2001) ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, L. (2000) ''Translation Criticism, the potentials & Limitations''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

*Forsythe, R. (2005) Cultural Displacement and the Mother-Daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills''. ''West Virginia University Philological Papers''.

*Jeremy M. (2001) ''Introduction Translation Studies: Theory and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.

*Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei丰玉芳, 王菲菲. (2015) 从豪斯的翻译质量评估模式看宋词翻译——以宋词《声声慢》和许渊冲英译本为例[Translation of Ci-poetry Based on J.House's TQA Model——A case study of ''Sheng Sheng Man'' and its English translation by Xu Yuanchong]. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版)[Journal of Yangzhou University(Humanities and Social Sciences Edition)]. 114-121.

*He Xiaobing 贺晓冰. (2018) 论《远山淡影》的不可靠叙述与记忆[Memory and Narrative Unreliability in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 西安外国语大学[Xi'an International Studies University].

*Jiang Ruiping 姜睿萍. (2007) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在英汉互译中的可行性分析[An Analysis on the Feasibility of House s TQA Model in CE Translation]. 哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University].

*Li Xiaolin & He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.

*Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].

*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

*Wang Lichuan 王丽川. (2019) 《远山淡影》中的反讽解读[A Study of the Irony in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 河南: 郑州大学[Henan: Journal of Zhengzhou University].

*Wang Fei 王飞. (2017) 石黑一雄中的身份焦虑[Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 中南大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Central South University(Social Science)]. 152-157.

*Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.

==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--韦洪朗 Wei Honglang,202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===Introduction===
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
I.Introduction
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
2.1 Literal translation
2.2 Free translation
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
2.3.1 On words
2.3.2 On sentence structures
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation
III.Domestication and Foreignization
3.1 Domestication
3.2 Foreignization
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
3.3.1 On politics
3.3.2 On culture
3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
4.2.2 domestication and free translation
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
V.Conclusion
References

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline

I.Introduction

II.Literal Translation and Free Translation

2.1 Literal translation

2.2 Free translation

2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation

2.3.1 On words

2.3.2 On sentence structures

2.3.3 On rhetorical means

2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation

III.Domestication and Foreignization

3.1 Domestication

3.2 Foreignization

3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization

3.3.1 On politics

3.3.2 On culture

3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization

IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation

4.2.2 domestication and free translation

4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation

V.Conclusion

References
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===I.Introduction ===
I.Introduction
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

I.Introduction
In history, arguments between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those times, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem of choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation, “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect the Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominant influence at that time, which did not change until the late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116). --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST into TT, especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his A Textbook of Translation, proposed that the common and only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

When translating was seen as the shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark, in his ''A Textbook of Translation'', proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means that those translating methods exist for dealing problems that happened during the process when translating( Ma Shikui 2012,20). The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for an appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do. --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 Literal translation ===
2.1 Literal translation
Literal translation is the one chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of The Bible in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

The literal translation refers to when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly reproduced, by adhering to the strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of ''Bible'' in the middle age I showed before. But as the argument and relevant theories developing till the modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or fewer differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249).--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 Free translation===
2.2 Free translation
It’s better if we can have it both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
Here are some specific examples of contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===
2.3.1 On words:
"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？
Free translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===
2.3.2 On sentence structures:
"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!
Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
"If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。
Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===
2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation
According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL and free translation considers more about TL users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===
III.Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way. Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===
3.1 Domestication
Domestication refers to a translation strategy of dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A.Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===
3.2 Foreignization
Venuti puts translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
Examples for domesticating method and foreignizing method:

===3.3.1 On Politics===
3.3.1 On Politics：동해 & にほんかい
Since the 19th century, the world has experienced two world wars and the Cold War period. During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, which made different ideologies and political positions have a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===
3.3.2 On Culture：“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.
Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows well how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===
3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above analysis, it can be seen that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and necessity. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved. On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics. " (Sun Zhili 2011,27) Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
The same point: First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the original text can be sacrificed.
The different points: The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation.
Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these twopairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)
(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子
(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果
The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation do, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even quoted it in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from the Bible, which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===
4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation
Similarly, the shadow of free translation can often be found in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)
(1)drink like a fish 牛饮
(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦
As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, and there is no such statement way in China, which leads to the consequences that translating versions are difficult to understand. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting, but also easy to understand.
However, when doing actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies.
(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）
We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.
The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. At this one, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.
(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)
Kill two birds with one stone.
Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===
V.Conclusion
Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, then we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach the translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange. Therefore, in a sense, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===
References
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.
Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.
Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.
Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.
Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.
Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei==

===Abstract===
Abstract
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.
Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
Key Words: functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies

===摘要===
摘要
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。

===关键字===
关键词：功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
References

===Outline===
Outline

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
1. Introduction
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.
As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namelyevaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.
Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent
specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)
Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).
Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.
It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.
According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.
The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is
an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of cultural
transformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive
factor for the target text.
In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural
context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”
(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.
“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).
Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.
Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.
With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.
Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.
On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.
Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
3.1 Garden culture.
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.
(1) 排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole。
Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.
(2) 从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.
Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.
(3) 主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.
Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
3.2 Historical culture.
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:
(4) 此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。
Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.
Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
3.3 Religious culture.
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.
(5) 主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.
Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
4. Conclusion
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.
The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.
Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

===References===
References
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==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay will take the Chinese translation of Russian idioms and proverbs as examples to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages, and their relationships, in order to help students who learn Russian understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between modern literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Zhu Guangqian said: "The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. " Feng Shize believes that "translation and literal translation are up-and-down relations; between literal translation and free translation is the left-right relationship. If the reversal of word order and other methods are free translation, then the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation besides free translation. "(Feng Shize 1981,10)

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

==== Literal translation ====

Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Vocabulary gaps between languages are a common phenomenon, causing many difficulties for translation. There are many reasons for the vacancy of vocabulary, such as cultural reasons such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs, and linguistic reasons. There are roughly two ways to fill the language gaps — paraphrasing by replacing the image.and discarding images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)
我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)
直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。
意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)
直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。
意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下
意译：如释重负

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉
意译：不三不四，不伦不类

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀
意译：远亲不如近邻

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰
意译：笑里藏刀

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点
意译：人无完人

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁
意译：三思而后行(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. The other situation is the experience that the Russians summed up in their long labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb, but the Chinese have not summed up this experience, so translating Russian proverbs into Chinese literally, Chinese people can understand them at a glance and increase their knowledge of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The translation of Russian proverbs by literal translation not only maintains the original language, but also transplants the unique image language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the horizons of Chinese readers, but also enriches the way of expression in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs expressing the same semantics use different metaphors. Some Russian proverbs are difficult to retain the original image in the process of translation into Chinese. If literally translated according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translation is difficult to be accepted by the Chinese, and even misunderstood may occur.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text to readers, we can readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of a correct understanding of the meaning of the original text, and use standard Chinese expressions to reproduce Russian proverbs to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of lexical structure, syntactic structure, expression methods and metaphors. In many cases, translators understand the original meaning but do not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works that are more contradictory between bilinguals, translators often use free translation methods. When translating works that are consistent or have more common points than contradictions or conflicts between bilinguals, translators tend to choose literal translation .

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

*Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].
*Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.
*Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.
*Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.
*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现.

作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circles first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that both seeking truth and vulgarity. (Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38)That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a typical literal translation school. He insists that faith first and smoothness second even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposed. From the New culture Movement(from 1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both truth and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only using one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faith first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should make the translation be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in ancient China, put forward that avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which caused the translation quality to be too low. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree between the two in the way of combining literal translation and free translation at the same time to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1.Dialectic thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationship is the key to understand and grasp the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally apply it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems: one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definition and application and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Word-for-word translation===
Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form. (Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's work of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction is regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is parataxis while English is hypotaxis. (Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1)That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with little modifier and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words into only a sentence.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjective are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems freely arranged.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structure to deal well. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, continuing word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is not intelligible for reader. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Over free translation===
Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, such as the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

When we translate from English to Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, free translation does not mean random translation. The latter means making up translated sentence by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation. (Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as corresponding one of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up translated sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as a correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Dialectic translation===
Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only not the original form. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If in literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while if in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. While although the former are totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In another word, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In other words, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keep the original content and style by use of the same or similar expression as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)

Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===
Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. President Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works. (Wu Shuang, 2018, 178)On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning. ( Yang Yin 2019, 161)So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation. (He Lirong 2018,43) For example" have a wolf in the stomach" means"饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be free translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into"致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language are second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conformity to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not be achieved.

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been achieved.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as the original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation is unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification.

The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgment before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In he first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. While understanding the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his understanding.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his or her understanding.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Eugene. Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

No matter which translation standard, it is impossible to meet by only literal translation or only free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. So, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and achieve a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification.

Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different form and style, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi,202070080627==
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation bases on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward mainly two viewpoints. Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped.

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation us almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22) Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form.

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes.

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function.

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them.

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative. What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)
"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

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='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

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--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen==

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the characteristics of translating English long sentences, mainly from three aspects: cross-cultural communication, emphasis on form and clear language logic. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, splitting translation, synthesis and insertion.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分从英汉对比的角度剖析了英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，分为三个方面，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分阐述了翻译英语长句的特点，主要有跨文化交际性、重视形式以及明确逻辑关系三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、综合法和插入法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Introduction===

===2.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.
The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:
(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.
(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.
(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.
(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===3.Differences in sentence structure between English and Chinese===

English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture.

===3.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis. Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses(Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible.
Example 1:
Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.
人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。
In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. As the eye of news, the translation quality of news headlines directly affects the effectiveness of news dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions of news headlines and the translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward translation strategies for Chinese-English news headlines, aiming at restoring the concise feature of news and realizing the purpose of news dissemination and social value.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; translation strategies

===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===1. Introduction===
With the further development of the world economy and culture, news is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet or newspapers and magazines to learn about current events. But we are confused by thousands of news and the information they carry, because we are all exposed to a world where massive information is surrounding. There is no doubt that because we can read too much news, some news has been ignored. Therefore, a proper headline is the most important element which can be regarded as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are always vivid and eye-catching in newspapers, in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, the translator must learn how to effectively screen and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it attractive to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy, the implementation of reform and opening-up and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what the translator should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are lots of researches about C-E news translation and news headline translation. However, researches on Chinese-English news headlines translation are very few. According to statistics from CNKI, there are only two pages of researches on Chinese – English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is of great importance.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines. Then the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===2. Overview of News Headlines===

==== 2.1 Definition of news and news headlines====

News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen and it is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and propagate ideas and express information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, give essential information about, or interest readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====2.2 Features of news headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture and structure.

===== 2.2.1 Grammatical features=====

2.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成巴'''黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines.

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

2.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including individual measures, conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct feature of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which save the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tells the time of happening from. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====2.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The usual figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, includes metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc... They aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers.

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 2.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical text genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or nation. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines,

=====2.2.4 Structural features =====
To achieve headline’s peculiarity and simplicity, some punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often used in Chinese news headlines. Though differences exist in this area, the pursuit of using punctuation marks in the same – to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The usual rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)
[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题
[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job

====2.3 Functions of news headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

====2.3.2 Expressive Function ====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using subjective words or rhetoric devices.

=====2.3.3 Aesthetic function=====
“This is language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences, clauses and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====2.3.4 Vocative function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after reading the news.

===3. Skopos Theory===

As has been mentioned in the last section, news headlines and their translation are function-oriented. The fundamental function or the “Skopos” is to attract the readers. Therefore, in this section, we will discuss Skopos theory and its three rules.

====3.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, which formed an early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss takes the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that when we translate, we should consider the function of the text.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argues that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has purposes, which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action. Some of other forms of translational action may relate to actions which giving like a consultant. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields. Besides, Skopos theory has three principal rules which will be illustrated in the following section.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 3.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====

There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 3.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29)

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41)

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are intended for the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means”

=====3.2.2 Coherence Rule=====

The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) That is to say that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 3.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from intratextual coherence, there is intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text, which is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. This means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and thus, any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationship between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and both belong to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity with the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139)

====3.3 Summary ====

This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, which intends to lay a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headline is to convey information and attract readers. In light of these, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.

===4. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===

As mentioned in the last chapter, Skopos theory specifies the purpose of translation. As far as the author concerns, the skopos of Chinese headline translation is to transfer information of the latest events that happened in China to English readers. All sorts of translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed.

====4.1 Criteria of News headline translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. For a translator, the first and foremost thing is to be loyal to the content of the source language and convey it in a precise way, particularly for the translation of news headlines. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth for reading. This means the translation should be easy for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability ranked at the top of reasons for buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, translation of news headlines should consider readability. If the rule of fidelity is viewed from the perspective of translation content, then the rule of readability can be treated as put forward from the perspective of translation form. The primary aim of a news headline is to arouse readers' interests as much as possible. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern related to news language. In other words, the style of the target language and the source language should remain the same. Style is considered to be an essential and important portion in translation. Translation of news headlines is without exception. So, the translator must take serious consideration to the grammar and diction of English, and make sure that the version of a new style is suitable when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation is the most significant one. It implies that the news headline translation should be carried out and complete at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, timeliness of news determines the rapidity of news translation, especially the translation of news headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies of E-C News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation strategies including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation.

=====4.2.1 Literal translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples:

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”is translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量”is translated to “jeans sales”, and “骤减” is translated into “slump”, which is exactly a literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒” is translated to “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测” is translated into “antigen tests”, “获批” is translated to “approved”. We can see that in this example, the form and style and even the tense and voice of the source text and target text are the same. So, it is a literal translation.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is a literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language.

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====

Most news headlines carry certain backgrounds, which are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory, because the purpose of such translating is to convey the information useful to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually carry rich cultural contents. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news.

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====

Because the literal meaning of the sentence does not work in the situation of the utterance, the translators have to find vague information and convey it to the target readers. In news headline translation, special information needs to restructure.

Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)

[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

====4.2.6 Adaptation ====

Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers.

===4.3 Summary===
This chapter introduces criteria and strategies of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can served as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===5. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.
==== limitations ====
However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

===References===

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* Vermeer, H. J. Skopos and Translation Commission [M]. Heidelberg: University, 1989.

* Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 2001: 77-78.

* Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 50-51.

* Nida, E. A. Language and Culture—Contexts in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 38-41.

* Schudson, M. The Power of News [M]. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1995

* Hu Shuzhong 胡曙中. 语篇语言学导论 [ Introduction to Discourse Linguistics ] [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2012.

* Xu Mingwu 许明武. 新闻英语与翻译 [News English and Translation] [M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation], 2003.

* Shen Jinbo 沈金伯. 新闻英语文体探讨[Exploring the English Style of News ][J]. 《外国语》[Foreign Languages]. 1989(1): 52-55

* Fan Tengteng 樊腾腾. 从目的论角度论英语新闻标题的翻译[Translation of English News Headlines from Perspective of Skopos Theory ][D]. 广东外语外贸大学[Guangdong University of Foreign Studies], 2006.

* Liu Mixian 刘宓庆. 当代翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Theory ][M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation], 2003.

* Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue 王军,陈诗月.翻译目的论研究综述[A Review of Translation Purpose Theory Research ] [J].现代交际[Modern Intercourse],2017(18):102-103.

* Chen Lizhao. 陈丽昭. 中英新闻标题对比研究[A Comparative Study of Chinese and English News Headlines ][D].福建师范大学[Fujian Normal University],2002.

* Wang Chi 王驰. 目的论在经济新闻标题英汉翻译中的应用[The Application of Skopos Theory in the English-Chinese Translation of Economic News Headlines ][D].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University], 2013.

* Luo Dan 罗丹. 目的论视角下的中国日报网英语新闻标题的翻译策略[Translation Strategies of English News Headlines in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos Theory ][D].武汉科技大学[Wuhan University of Science and Technology], 2012.

* Tang Ting 唐婷. 从目的论看硬新闻标题的汉译英[Chinese-English translation of Hard News Headlines From Perspective of Skopos Thoery][D].南华大学[University of South China],2010.

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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。
随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化促进交流。翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
在一些公众场合，笔者注意到不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语” 公益广告存在，本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and enhance their understanding of China.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin‟s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn the Chinese language, others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity to help them learn and better understand China.

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the internationalcommunity, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and suggest translation suggestions.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.
Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.
Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.
Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.
Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.
Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.
Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function. Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemisms such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

2. No Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===
1.Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

2.Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

3.Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

4.Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

5.Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

6.Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

7.Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

8.Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

9.Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

10.Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

===References===
Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion：
Change the order of your contents like：

1. views of Text Type Theory

1.1 Reiss's…..

1.2 Peter …..

1.3 similarities and differences between…

2. Features of Public Service Advertisement

2.1 content

2.2 forms

2.3 similarities and differences between...--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 8

2020-12-18T15:53:54Z

Peng Yongliang: /* References */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=
== Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==

==='''Abstract'''===

== Abstract: ==

==='''key words'''===

==='''摘要'''===

==='''关键字'''===

===Complete transcript of the content of the original work ===

===Same style and manner of writing===

===Equivalent effect===

===Discussion===

===Conclusion===

===Bibliography===

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu==
<center>王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of civilization and broken through the language barrier. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history becomes a basic project of the construction of the discipline. Although there are many differences of translation histories between the Western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights, and have an indelible influence and contribution to translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between the Western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 00:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Keywords===
===Key-words===--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation History of the West; Translation History of China; Comparative Study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society. Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works.(Xie Tianzhen2009,Ⅴ) The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.

No matter in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society. "Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the design of curriculum of Chinese and Western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another, including ''History of Translation in China – before May Fourth''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi, ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works."(Xie Tianzhen 2009,Ⅴ). The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

Western translation activities are rich in a long history. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient time, the middle age, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times===

The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.(Tan Zaixi2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping2009,8) Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas, started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The translation history of Western countries first began in the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC. (Tan Zaixi 2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, Greece began to decay and the Roman had become stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid culture of its own era after Greece. So it soon began large-scale translation activities. The activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping 2009,8). Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome, and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used the Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89) It started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was religious in nature. In this period, translation was mainly related about the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west, Christianity strives to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of the Christianism naturally meant a lot in religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was concerned about religion. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west. Christians strived to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of Christianism naturally meant a lot in the religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. "Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgate) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible".(Quotation missing). This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ all are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement which took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European nation states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's Iliad and Odyssey from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping2009,9) The renaissance played a very important role in the western history of the development of translation, it marked the national language status in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated, simultaneously, it showed the translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Tan Zaixi2000, 91)

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English. (Liu Junping 2009,9) The Renaissance played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation. It marked the status of nationallanguage in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated. Simultaneously, it shows that translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 91) --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory, the world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growing in number or quantity of translation activities, the translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation, and with the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, having made tremendous progress, the translation scale has exceed the past.

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory.The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growth in number or quantity of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. With the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, making tremendous progress. And the translation scale has exceeded the past.(quotation missing)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, they have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 92)

There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, who have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The Western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 92).--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China. Although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasty, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history." (Ma Zuyi 1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 04:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Sutra should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China,it was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book The Fifty Books of the Mingdu translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,17)

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi 1998,17)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks,(Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' language knowledge , they usually used literal translation. The second perid was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way which was also use the literal translation. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality if translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi1998,82)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period, which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks, (Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of the language, they usually used literal translation. The second period was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to be translated in an organized way but was still translated literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time. (Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills. (Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in the Tang Dynasty. (Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, but he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations. (Ma Zuyi1998,82)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra translation has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, the translation of Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra has contributed more than a lot. The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, he was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, there appeared translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and improving the level of science in China.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin. He was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West. (Ma Zuyi 1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and the organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty. He made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoting the development of science in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate western natural science books, Under the influence of the reform thought, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. The records of four continents, translated by Liang Jinde, Lin Zexu asked him to do so, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations, His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time and advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of western natural science. Under the influence of the thought of reform, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China. （Ma Zuyi 1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period, translators in this period of time, by comparison with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective regarding source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand, the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang, these scholars had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces and enriched the inner world of the Chinese people, Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientization of translation theory in China.

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th Movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th Movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese. As a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of Western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter into a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translation like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu He puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. That is a literary translation is like the act of transmigration in which the souls, the spirit of the original text remain in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its "reform and open" policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural, and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translations like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the translation of the documents of the United Nations after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. It is like the act of transmigration in which the soul, the spirit of the original text remains in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of the disastrous "cultural revolution", China adopted the "reform and open" policy. Therefore, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

About the religious and translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religious to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of existence form of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of the society.

About the religious translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason. After the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religion to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of society.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of German language and the establishment of modern German, what’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary, in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century in the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German. What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. In the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese. --[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kind of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, they have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations.(Tan Zaixi1999)

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kinds of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations. (Tan Zaixi 1999, 缺页码)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First is that, the time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is due to the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in the ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially when people in the remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for a destination. So, there is difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations, there will be delay of the communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so it was much convenient and easier for the western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activity.

First, time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes. In ancient times, it took quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially at a long distance. Therefore, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head to a destination. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations. There would be a delay in communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so， it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set an ideal environment for the development of translation activities.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, the position of the religious varies. The different traditional culture of the west and China has made the concept of religious of the two are quite varied from each other. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabulary of their own. In the west, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, in order to consolidate his ruling position, the rulers ruled the people spiritually, and the doctrine of Buddhism was in line with the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

Also, the position of religion varies. The different tradition and culture of the west and China make the concept of religion of the two quite varied. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of the Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture. To consolidate his ruling position, the ruler controlled the people spiritually. The doctrine of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation tradition of the west and China differs. One of the differences of them is the difference between single system and multiple system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation. “because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.” By way of contrast, In terms of space, the western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of multiple system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi2000,15)

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between a single system and a poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese culture.”(Quotation missing) In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China. (Tan Zaixi 2000,15)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The Chinese and western translation concepts are different. Then, the translation theories are different. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practicality than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said that: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists are most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation and how to deal with them.” however, western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and China is conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept more challenges less, China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break through dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.

The concept of Chinese and western translation is different. Meanwhile, the translation theory in China and the west varies. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practice than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept fewer challenges. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theory, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to the direction of knowledge, and constantly leading us to explore into the unknown field.

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theories, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will able to learn from the experience and lessons in this development process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.

Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学 [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). 中西翻译简史 [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. 南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press武汉大学出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译[Chinese Translation and Western Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播[Translation and Religious Communication]. 中国校外教育理论 Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性[The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors. Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)
(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.
Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things. Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral. In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)
In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story", in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc.
In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.[6]

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425) and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc, but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.
In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc. For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper. As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. [9]In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.
In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan陈缘2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent
“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan
“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family
“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .
But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,

====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132) In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes, such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple. In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity. Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well. Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)
For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.
black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)
black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)
black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions. Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves. We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）
Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others, and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people". In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words. When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate. With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually. However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

===7.Reference ===

*Cai Xiaomin.蔡晓敏.( 2020).中英颜色词的对比与翻译研究[A comparative study of Chinese and English color words and their translation].海外英语[Overseas English],65-66.

*Yan Wen.颜雯.(2012).翻译中颜色词的中西文化内涵差异[The difference between Chinese and Western cultural connotations of color words in translation].青年文学家·语言研究,[ Young Literati-Language Studies],177.

*Jin Yan.金燕.(2012).浅析颜色词在中西文化下的翻译对比差异[An analysis of the contrasting differences in the translation of color words in Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Zhao Fenyan.赵芬艳.(2019).试论中西颜色词的文化内涵及翻译策略[The cultural connotation of Chinese and Western color words and translation strategies].师资校企经验[Faculty school-enterprise experience],232-234.

*Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.

*Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.

*Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of "Green/绿" in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.

*Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.

*Li Dan.李丹.(2018).中西文化差异下的颜色词翻译[Translation of color words under the difference of Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Li Hong.李虹.(2020).汉英颜色词翻译的差异性研究[A study of the differences between Chinese-English color word translations].文化长廊[Cultural Promenade].

*Liu Mengqi, Chen Xingxing.刘梦琪,陈星星.(2020).浅谈颜色词的翻译[A brief discussion on the translation of color words].校园英语翻译研究[Campus English Translation Study].

*Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.

*Xu Yanping.许雁萍.(2009).中西文化中颜色词语的差异及其翻译[The Difference of Color Words in Chinese and Western Culture and Their Translation].文学语言学研究[Literary Linguistics Research],212-213.

*Wang Yu.王羽.(2012).中西文化对比下颜色词的差异比较[Comparison of the differences in color words between Chinese and Western cultures].教育时空[Education Time],151.

*Li Yun, Jia Aiguang.李云,贾爱光.(2020).大学英语教学中英汉基本颜色词翻译对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion on the Translation of English and Chinese Basic Color Words in University English Teaching].校园英语[Campus English],11-21.

*Chen Yuan陈缘.(2020)英汉颜色词的文化差异与翻译[Cultural differences between English and Chinese color words and translation].海外英语[Overseas English],48-49.

==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing==

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>

===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding from a historical perspective, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept. Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. in the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere suggested that in Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame) the Manipulation of Literary Fame), argues that translation takes into account several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology.

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept.

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form.

Mkerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda.

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed.
===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful.

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were doubly condemned without being told; and the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems, one by one, Pound. The crime: infidelity. Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity' of Yan Fu and others.

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal and external. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics' (Lefevere, 1992a: 14-15). Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics.

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator' (op. cit: 48).

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere is, in my view, logically debatable. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process.

In the author's view, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants.Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies.

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own value judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one.

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, or to lose the order to translate, or to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful.

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (See Lefevere, 1992a: 15)

In short, it means "those who obey me will prosper, those who disobey me will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class.

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise.

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like in taijiquan, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle" (Huiyuan, 1984: 41), which strives for impartiality.

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology.

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Dawan, 1984:24)"

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology (Lefevere, 1992b: 15), but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (op. cit: 18)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue.

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons.

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology.

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians', politically. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation.[8]

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. [8]

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner.

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China.

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China.

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime.

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House.

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes.

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society.

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China.

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained.

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose.

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology.

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases.

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons.

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work.

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will.

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." [13]
IV. Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences. Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews.

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation.

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. [8] And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation.

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. [14] Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations.

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities.

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. [1 In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable.

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.
===Reference books===
*许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.

*吕俊．翻译研究:从文本理论到权利话语[J]．四川外语学院学报，2002，1 (18): 106-109.

*Bassnett, S & Ledever, A. Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 48.

*Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2010: 127-129.

*Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010: 1-70.

*王东风. 一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.

*周扬. 社会主义现实主义——中国文学前进的道路 [N].人民日报，1953-01-11 (1).

*文记东. 1949~1966年的中苏文化交流[M]，哈尔滨:黑龙江大学出版社，2011: 101, 144.

*马祖毅．中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.

*人民出版社马列著作编辑室．马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作中文本书目（1950~1983年）[Z]. 北京：人民出版社，1985.

*周东元，亓文公．中国外文局五十年史料选编（1）[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 399.

*新星出版社编辑部．中国外文局五十年回忆录[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 37, 420-421.

*杨宪益，薛鸿时．漏船载酒译当年[M]. 北京:人民日报出版社，2001: 225.

*杜萌．翻译市场滥译滥编侵权现状调查[N]. 法制日报，2009-03-02 (8).

*中国翻译协会．中国翻译年鉴﹔2009~2010年[M]. 北京:外文出版社，2011: 241, 232.

==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in my country or Western countries, the long tradition of translation has become the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization.In addition, translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication.This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.

Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This paper first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来,就存在翻译.翻译与人类的历史并道而驰,甚至先于历史记载.无论在我国,还是西方国家,悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.And these translation stages have had varying degrees of impact on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)
====2.1 The first stage:Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (middle 14th to 19th centuries), there was a second stage of translation in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major shift was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

In this way, the two needs complement each other, and the translation of Western scientific books is increasing. Increased, which promoted the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to narratives and co-translation and compilation.(Liu 2016,148)

He proposed that the translation of Western history books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must first translate."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil and internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist ideas demanded to unite to resist the aggression of Western countries, and proposed reforms to strengthen themselves.Translation in this period is the boundary of modern Chinese translation history. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation. The scale and influence of its translation activities all surpassed any period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

When Lin Shu is translating, he emphasizes on subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original work.A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent.During the May 4th Movement, the "New Youth" magazine was launched and began to translate western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representatives such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适）, and Zhou Zuoren （周作人）all attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.（Ma 2000,46）

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as our country, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible. Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may begin in this period.It was only in the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The translation activities in the fourth to sixth centuries AD were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages one after another.（Tan 2004,79）

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the Middle Ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Eastern literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14-16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

All in all, the ideological liberation movement of the Renaissance in Europe around 1500 had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially Western European society, and cultural translation played a crucial role as a bridge in this ideological liberation movement. It also shows that translation plays a huge role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

The form of translation during this period has also undergone great changes, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development. It is a challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is also a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

Third, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages in various countries has some obvious commonalities in both the West and China.In the West, Martin Luther's Bible translation has played a very important role in the unification and development of German and modern German.The English translation of the "Bible" also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and expressive means.As for China, Buddhist translation has enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May Fourth Movement, which promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular.The translation in the new era has also enriched the vocabulary to a certain extent.For example, the Chinese "人山人海" translates into English as "people mountain people sea", and it is even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation also plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
It is precisely based on the above-mentioned understanding of the history of Chinese and Western translation from different aspects that "similarities have differences, and differences have similarities", so I think that the history of Chinese and Western translation development should be described, analyzed and sorted in the same framework. It is possible.In this way, we can not only emphasize the common ground in the development of Chinese and Western translation, find the rules among them, but also show the uniqueness of the development of the two.

This article adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life.At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

===References===
Chen Fang 陈芳.(2016).西方翻译史的文化演进——评《西方翻译简史》[The Cultural Evolution of Western Translation History——A Review of "A short history of translation in the West"].当代教育学(06)Contemporary Education(2).

Gong Yicai 龚亿财.(2020).论翻译在第三次翻译高潮中的特点及社会功能[On the features and social functions of translation in the third translation climax].吉林广播电视大学学报(Total No.217)Journal of Jilin Radio and TV University.

Li Yin 李颖.(2016).从翻译史上的几个重要时期看中国翻译理论与实践的发展[Viewing the development of Chinese translation theory and practice from several important periods in the history of translation].湖北经济学院学报(Vol13 No.10)Journal of Hubei University of Economics.

Liu Qiaoling 刘巧玲.(2016).从中国翻译史的四次高潮看主要译论及读者影响[Main translation theories and readers' influence from the four climaxes of Chinese translation history].黑龙江生态工程职业学院学报(Vol.29 No.5)Journal of Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A short history of translation in the West].商务印书馆The Commercial Press of Hongkong.

Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2010)中西翻译史整体观探索[An exploration of the holistic view of Chinese and Western translation history].东方翻译(02)East Journal of Translation(4-8).

='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for (translation) is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy". 2004:240). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary" (revised edition) says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc." (2012:353) and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” (Ibid.: 127) There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs. (Venuti, 2001: 240) The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997: 43-44) And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language (ibid).

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home", (oc20 ) Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized (o￡.:16-17), that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text. (Venuti, 2001:240). Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:59). Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land (ibid.). He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.” (Venuti, 1992: 13). Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 </center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars.

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of four chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two is a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is statement of translation quality assessment. Then we come to the last part, Conclusion.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul.

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko’s little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko’s memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression.

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested.

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from HowNet, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters(2017). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(2018). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(2015).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author’s thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, in an effort to foster the application of House’s model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province.

The evaluation depends on the matching degree between original text andtranslation. The higher the matching degree is, the better the translation quality is. The quality evaluation of the translated text needs to state mismatching degree of each dimension in the whole context, that is, the description of the quantity of covert errors (errors in context dimension) and overt errors (referential mismatcher or grammatical violation of target language system).(House 1977, 30)

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House’s TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people’s mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won’t block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practised violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people’s mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won’t influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn’t adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with “for” for causal relation and “as” for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn’t, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

“There's nothing like” is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that “a timely reminder of one’s personal obligations” is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although “so much” and “so quickly” modify the verb “change”, we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator’s understanding on author’s attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author’s attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2：

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko’s mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text “eventually” signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3：

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits “be perfectly all right if”, which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko’s old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko’s husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn’t take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro’s colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as “rabble” and “like” are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation “正如” is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===
The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi’s Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House’s model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.

===References===

*Awla, Y. N. (2019). The The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'': An Eco-critical Study. ''Journal of University of Raparin''. 1-18.

*House, J. (1977) ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment''. Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*House, J. (1997) ''Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised''. German: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*Newmark, P. (2001) ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, L. (2000) ''Translation Criticism, the potentials & Limitations''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

*Forsythe, R. (2005) Cultural Displacement and the Mother-Daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills''. ''West Virginia University Philological Papers''.

*Jeremy M. (2001) ''Introduction Translation Studies: Theory and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.

*Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei丰玉芳, 王菲菲. (2015) 从豪斯的翻译质量评估模式看宋词翻译——以宋词《声声慢》和许渊冲英译本为例[Translation of Ci-poetry Based on J.House's TQA Model——A case study of ''Sheng Sheng Man'' and its English translation by Xu Yuanchong]. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版)[Journal of Yangzhou University(Humanities and Social Sciences Edition)]. 114-121.

*He Xiaobing 贺晓冰. (2018) 论《远山淡影》的不可靠叙述与记忆[Memory and Narrative Unreliability in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 西安外国语大学[Xi'an International Studies University].

*Jiang Ruiping 姜睿萍. (2007) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在英汉互译中的可行性分析[An Analysis on the Feasibility of House s TQA Model in CE Translation]. 哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University].

*Li Xiaolin & He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.

*Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].

*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

*Wang Lichuan 王丽川. (2019) 《远山淡影》中的反讽解读[A Study of the Irony in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 河南: 郑州大学[Henan: Journal of Zhengzhou University].

*Wang Fei 王飞. (2017) 石黑一雄中的身份焦虑[Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 中南大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Central South University(Social Science)]. 152-157.

*Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.

==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--韦洪朗 Wei Honglang,202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===Introduction===
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
I.Introduction
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
2.1 Literal translation
2.2 Free translation
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
2.3.1 On words
2.3.2 On sentence structures
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation
III.Domestication and Foreignization
3.1 Domestication
3.2 Foreignization
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
3.3.1 On politics
3.3.2 On culture
3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
4.2.2 domestication and free translation
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
V.Conclusion
References

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline

I.Introduction

II.Literal Translation and Free Translation

2.1 Literal translation

2.2 Free translation

2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation

2.3.1 On words

2.3.2 On sentence structures

2.3.3 On rhetorical means

2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation

III.Domestication and Foreignization

3.1 Domestication

3.2 Foreignization

3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization

3.3.1 On politics

3.3.2 On culture

3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization

IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation

4.2.2 domestication and free translation

4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation

V.Conclusion

References
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===I.Introduction ===
I.Introduction
In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

I.Introduction
In history, arguments between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those times, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem of choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation, “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect the Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominant influence at that time, which did not change until the late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116). --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===
II.Literal Translation and Free Translation
When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST into TT, especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his A Textbook of Translation, proposed that the common and only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

When translating was seen as the shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark, in his ''A Textbook of Translation'', proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means that those translating methods exist for dealing problems that happened during the process when translating( Ma Shikui 2012,20). The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for an appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do. --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 Literal translation ===
2.1 Literal translation
Literal translation is the one chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of The Bible in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

The literal translation refers to when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly reproduced, by adhering to the strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of ''Bible'' in the middle age I showed before. But as the argument and relevant theories developing till the modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or fewer differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249).--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 Free translation===
2.2 Free translation
It’s better if we can have it both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===
2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation
Here are some specific examples of contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===
2.3.1 On words:
"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？
Free translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===
2.3.2 On sentence structures:
"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!
Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===
2.3.3 On rhetorical means
"If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。
Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===
2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation
According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL and free translation considers more about TL users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===
III.Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way. Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===
3.1 Domestication
Domestication refers to a translation strategy of dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A.Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===
3.2 Foreignization
Venuti puts translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===
3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization
Examples for domesticating method and foreignizing method:

===3.3.1 On Politics===
3.3.1 On Politics：동해 & にほんかい
Since the 19th century, the world has experienced two world wars and the Cold War period. During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, which made different ideologies and political positions have a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===
3.3.2 On Culture：“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.
Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows well how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===
3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization
Through the above analysis, it can be seen that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and necessity. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved. On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics. " (Sun Zhili 2011,27) Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization
The same point: First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the original text can be sacrificed.
The different points: The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation.
Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===
It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these twopairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===
4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation
According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)
(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子
(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果
The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation do, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even quoted it in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from the Bible, which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===
4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation
Similarly, the shadow of free translation can often be found in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)
(1)drink like a fish 牛饮
(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦
As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, and there is no such statement way in China, which leads to the consequences that translating versions are difficult to understand. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting, but also easy to understand.
However, when doing actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===
4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation
Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies.
(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）
We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.
The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. At this one, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.
(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)
Kill two birds with one stone.
Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===
V.Conclusion
Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, then we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach the translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange. Therefore, in a sense, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===
References
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.
Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.
Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.
Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.
Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.
Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei==

===Abstract===
Abstract
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.
Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
Key Words: functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies

===摘要===
摘要
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。

===关键字===
关键词：功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

===Table of Contents===

Table of Contents

Outline
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
References

===Outline===
Outline

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
1. Introduction
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.
As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namelyevaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.
Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent
specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)
Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).
Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.
It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.
According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.
The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is
an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of cultural
transformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive
factor for the target text.
In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural
context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”
(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.
“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).
Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.
Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.
With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.
Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.
On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.
Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
3.1 Garden culture.
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.
(1) 排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole。
Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.
(2) 从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。
Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.
Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.
(3) 主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.
Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
3.2 Historical culture.
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:
(4) 此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。
Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.
Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
3.3 Religious culture.
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.
(5) 主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。
Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.
Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
4. Conclusion
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.
The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.
Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

===References===
References
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Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001.
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Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.
Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.
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Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995.
方梦之、毛忠明，英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004.
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贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004
孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期.
王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000.
吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005.
谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005.
张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.
仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.
张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay will take the Chinese translation of Russian idioms and proverbs as examples to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages, and their relationships, in order to help students who learn Russian understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between modern literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Zhu Guangqian said: "The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. " Feng Shize believes that "translation and literal translation are up-and-down relations; between literal translation and free translation is the left-right relationship. If the reversal of word order and other methods are free translation, then the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation besides free translation. "(Feng Shize 1981,10)

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

==== Literal translation ====

Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Vocabulary gaps between languages are a common phenomenon, causing many difficulties for translation. There are many reasons for the vacancy of vocabulary, such as cultural reasons such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs, and linguistic reasons. There are roughly two ways to fill the language gaps — paraphrasing by replacing the image.and discarding images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)
我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)
直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。
意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)
直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。
意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下
意译：如释重负

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉
意译：不三不四，不伦不类

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀
意译：远亲不如近邻

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰
意译：笑里藏刀

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点
意译：人无完人

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁
意译：三思而后行(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. The other situation is the experience that the Russians summed up in their long labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb, but the Chinese have not summed up this experience, so translating Russian proverbs into Chinese literally, Chinese people can understand them at a glance and increase their knowledge of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The translation of Russian proverbs by literal translation not only maintains the original language, but also transplants the unique image language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the horizons of Chinese readers, but also enriches the way of expression in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs expressing the same semantics use different metaphors. Some Russian proverbs are difficult to retain the original image in the process of translation into Chinese. If literally translated according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translation is difficult to be accepted by the Chinese, and even misunderstood may occur.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text to readers, we can readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of a correct understanding of the meaning of the original text, and use standard Chinese expressions to reproduce Russian proverbs to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of lexical structure, syntactic structure, expression methods and metaphors. In many cases, translators understand the original meaning but do not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works that are more contradictory between bilinguals, translators often use free translation methods. When translating works that are consistent or have more common points than contradictions or conflicts between bilinguals, translators tend to choose literal translation .

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

*Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].
*Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.
*Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.
*Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.
*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现.

作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circles first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that both seeking truth and vulgarity. (Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38)That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a typical literal translation school. He insists that faith first and smoothness second even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposed. From the New culture Movement(from 1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both truth and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only using one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faith first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should make the translation be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in ancient China, put forward that avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which caused the translation quality to be too low. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree between the two in the way of combining literal translation and free translation at the same time to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===1.Dialectic thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationship is the key to understand and grasp the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally apply it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems: one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definition and application and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Word-for-word translation===
Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form. (Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's work of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction is regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is parataxis while English is hypotaxis. (Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1)That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with little modifier and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words into only a sentence.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjective are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems freely arranged.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structure to deal well. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, continuing word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is not intelligible for reader. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Over free translation===
Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, such as the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

When we translate from English to Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, free translation does not mean random translation. The latter means making up translated sentence by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation. (Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as corresponding one of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up translated sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as a correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Dialectic translation===
Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only not the original form. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If in literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while if in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. While although the former are totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In another word, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In other words, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keep the original content and style by use of the same or similar expression as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)

Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===
Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. President Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works. (Wu Shuang, 2018, 178)On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning. ( Yang Yin 2019, 161)So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation. (He Lirong 2018,43) For example" have a wolf in the stomach" means"饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be free translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into"致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language are second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conformity to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not be achieved.

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been achieved.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as the original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation is unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification.

The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgment before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In he first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. While understanding the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his understanding.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his or her understanding.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Eugene. Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

No matter which translation standard, it is impossible to meet by only literal translation or only free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. So, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:39, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and achieve a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification.

Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different form and style, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi,202070080627==
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation bases on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward mainly two viewpoints. Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped.

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation us almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22) Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form.

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes.

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function.

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them.

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative. What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)
"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

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='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

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--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen==

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the characteristics of translating English long sentences, mainly from three aspects: cross-cultural communication, emphasis on form and clear language logic. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, splitting translation, synthesis and insertion.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分从英汉对比的角度剖析了英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，分为三个方面，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分阐述了翻译英语长句的特点，主要有跨文化交际性、重视形式以及明确逻辑关系三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、综合法和插入法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Introduction===

===2.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.
The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:
(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.
(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.
(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.
(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===3.Differences in sentence structure between English and Chinese===

English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture.

===3.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis. Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses(Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible.
Example 1:
Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.
人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。
In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. As the eye of news, the translation quality of news headlines directly affects the effectiveness of news dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions of news headlines and the translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward translation strategies for Chinese-English news headlines, aiming at restoring the concise feature of news and realizing the purpose of news dissemination and social value.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; translation strategies

===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===1. Introduction===
With the further development of the world economy and culture, news is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet or newspapers and magazines to learn about current events. But we are confused by thousands of news and the information they carry, because we are all exposed to a world where massive information is surrounding. There is no doubt that because we can read too much news, some news has been ignored. Therefore, a proper headline is the most important element which can be regarded as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are always vivid and eye-catching in newspapers, in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, the translator must learn how to effectively screen and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it attractive to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy, the implementation of reform and opening-up and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what the translator should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are lots of researches about C-E news translation and news headline translation. However, researches on Chinese-English news headlines translation are very few. According to statistics from CNKI, there are only two pages of researches on Chinese – English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is of great importance.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines. Then the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===2. Overview of News Headlines===

==== 2.1 Definition of news and news headlines====

News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen and it is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and propagate ideas and express information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, give essential information about, or interest readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====2.2 Features of news headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture and structure.

===== 2.2.1 Grammatical features=====

2.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成巴'''黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines.

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

2.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including individual measures, conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct feature of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which save the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tells the time of happening from. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====2.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The usual figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, includes metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc... They aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers.

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 2.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical text genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or nation. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines,

=====2.2.4 Structural features =====
To achieve headline’s peculiarity and simplicity, some punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often used in Chinese news headlines. Though differences exist in this area, the pursuit of using punctuation marks in the same – to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The usual rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)
[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题
[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job

====2.3 Functions of news headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

====2.3.2 Expressive Function ====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using subjective words or rhetoric devices.

=====2.3.3 Aesthetic function=====
“This is language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences, clauses and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====2.3.4 Vocative function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after reading the news.

===3. Skopos Theory===

As has been mentioned in the last section, news headlines and their translation are function-oriented. The fundamental function or the “Skopos” is to attract the readers. Therefore, in this section, we will discuss Skopos theory and its three rules.

====3.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, which formed an early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss takes the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that when we translate, we should consider the function of the text.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argues that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has purposes, which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action. Some of other forms of translational action may relate to actions which giving like a consultant. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields. Besides, Skopos theory has three principal rules which will be illustrated in the following section.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 3.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====

There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 3.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29)

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41)

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are intended for the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means”

=====3.2.2 Coherence Rule=====

The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) That is to say that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 3.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from intratextual coherence, there is intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text, which is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. This means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and thus, any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationship between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and both belong to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity with the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139)

====3.3 Summary ====

This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, which intends to lay a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headline is to convey information and attract readers. In light of these, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.

===4. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===

As mentioned in the last chapter, Skopos theory specifies the purpose of translation. As far as the author concerns, the skopos of Chinese headline translation is to transfer information of the latest events that happened in China to English readers. All sorts of translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed.

====4.1 Criteria of News headline translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. For a translator, the first and foremost thing is to be loyal to the content of the source language and convey it in a precise way, particularly for the translation of news headlines. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth for reading. This means the translation should be easy for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability ranked at the top of reasons for buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, translation of news headlines should consider readability. If the rule of fidelity is viewed from the perspective of translation content, then the rule of readability can be treated as put forward from the perspective of translation form. The primary aim of a news headline is to arouse readers' interests as much as possible. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern related to news language. In other words, the style of the target language and the source language should remain the same. Style is considered to be an essential and important portion in translation. Translation of news headlines is without exception. So, the translator must take serious consideration to the grammar and diction of English, and make sure that the version of a new style is suitable when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation is the most significant one. It implies that the news headline translation should be carried out and complete at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, timeliness of news determines the rapidity of news translation, especially the translation of news headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies of E-C News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation strategies including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation.

=====4.2.1 Literal translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples:

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”is translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量”is translated to “jeans sales”, and “骤减” is translated into “slump”, which is exactly a literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒” is translated to “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测” is translated into “antigen tests”, “获批” is translated to “approved”. We can see that in this example, the form and style and even the tense and voice of the source text and target text are the same. So, it is a literal translation.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is a literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language.

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====

Most news headlines carry certain backgrounds, which are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory, because the purpose of such translating is to convey the information useful to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually carry rich cultural contents. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news.

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====

Because the literal meaning of the sentence does not work in the situation of the utterance, the translators have to find vague information and convey it to the target readers. In news headline translation, special information needs to restructure.

Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)

[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

====4.2.6 Adaptation ====

Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers.

===4.3 Summary===
This chapter introduces criteria and strategies of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can served as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===5. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.
==== limitations ====
However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

===References===

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* Vermeer, H. J. Skopos and Translation Commission [M]. Heidelberg: University, 1989.

* Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 2001: 77-78.

* Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 50-51.

* Nida, E. A. Language and Culture—Contexts in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 38-41.

* Schudson, M. The Power of News [M]. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1995

* Hu Shuzhong 胡曙中. 语篇语言学导论 [ Introduction to Discourse Linguistics ] [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2012.

* Xu Mingwu 许明武. 新闻英语与翻译 [News English and Translation] [M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation], 2003.

* Shen Jinbo 沈金伯. 新闻英语文体探讨[Exploring the English Style of News ][J]. 《外国语》[Foreign Languages]. 1989(1): 52-55

* Fan Tengteng 樊腾腾. 从目的论角度论英语新闻标题的翻译[Translation of English News Headlines from Perspective of Skopos Theory ][D]. 广东外语外贸大学[Guangdong University of Foreign Studies], 2006.

* Liu Mixian 刘宓庆. 当代翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Theory ][M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation], 2003.

* Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue 王军,陈诗月.翻译目的论研究综述[A Review of Translation Purpose Theory Research ] [J].现代交际[Modern Intercourse],2017(18):102-103.

* Chen Lizhao. 陈丽昭. 中英新闻标题对比研究[A Comparative Study of Chinese and English News Headlines ][D].福建师范大学[Fujian Normal University],2002.

* Wang Chi 王驰. 目的论在经济新闻标题英汉翻译中的应用[The Application of Skopos Theory in the English-Chinese Translation of Economic News Headlines ][D].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University], 2013.

* Luo Dan 罗丹. 目的论视角下的中国日报网英语新闻标题的翻译策略[Translation Strategies of English News Headlines in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos Theory ][D].武汉科技大学[Wuhan University of Science and Technology], 2012.

* Tang Ting 唐婷. 从目的论看硬新闻标题的汉译英[Chinese-English translation of Hard News Headlines From Perspective of Skopos Thoery][D].南华大学[University of South China],2010.

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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:40, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。
随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化促进交流。翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
在一些公众场合，笔者注意到不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语” 公益广告存在，本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。
笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and enhance their understanding of China.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin‟s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn the Chinese language, others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity to help them learn and better understand China.

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the internationalcommunity, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and suggest translation suggestions.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.
Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.
Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.
Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.
Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.
Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.
Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function. Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemisms such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

2. No Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===
1.Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

2.Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

3.Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

4.Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

5.Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

6.Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

7.Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

8.Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

9.Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

10.Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

===References===
Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion：
Change the order of your contents like：

1. views of Text Type Theory

1.1 Reiss's…..

1.2 Peter …..

1.3 similarities and differences between…

2. Features of Public Service Advertisement

2.1 content

2.2 forms

2.3 similarities and differences between...--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)