China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T08:22:49Z

Su Lin: /* Su Lin 苏琳 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.

'''朱自清'''

第三个例子是朱自清，他在自己的作品中展现了另一种面貌。他因是“背影”的作者而为人熟知，“背影”是最常被转载的故事式中国散文，也是标准的校本教材。这个故事在孝顺主题上塑造的很成功。通过在车站与自己的父亲告别，他懂得了父亲的爱，同时自己也成长了。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 08:15, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
相比之下，鲁迅用悲伤的笔调描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中讽刺地写道—他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。据说较少参与政治的朱自清在这里表现出更多的参与。
文章《面对新中国》是朱自清的政治体现：他要求民主，启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

相比之下，鲁迅则用低吟隐晦的笔调描绘了同一场大屠杀，同样，周作人在其作品《死法》中讽刺地写到他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死法。由此观之，大众所言极少参与政治活动的朱自清实际上很大程度投身于其中。

文章《新中国在望中》是朱自清政治立场的体现：他提倡民主，呼吁启蒙，倡导提高教育水平。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.

我只展示了几篇文章，如果我们仔细阅读他们的小众散文作品，就会发现这三位作者的形象发生了实质性的变化。想象一下，如果文学史和选集不仅讲述戏剧、小说和诗歌的历史，而且赋予散文应有的地位，那么20世纪的中国文学将会发生怎样的变化。以下部分是我的专著《20世纪中国散文》的成果。

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:

散文的发行于1920年至1930年达到繁盛主要原因在于新杂志的出现。新杂志成为了当代散文家以及散文丛书的载体。

散文发行量不断上升的原因，可以追溯到“文化大革命”时期的大清洗，造成了需求的积压。1980至1982年间印刷了一百万册散文集便很好的反映了上述观点。而这一数据仅包含于我为了调查而收录的130本代表性书目的样本中。20世纪90年代中期，中国散文盛行的原因有三点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:17, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

在本世纪末，位于排行榜前列的不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的文章位于前列。尤其是从1923年到1928年，大部分非政治性文章可以追溯到共和党时代。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。在1949年以后的政治论文中，排名较高的有批评文章。在中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常选择的论文中，道德和美学标准似乎已成为基础话题。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 06:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.

这些注释与经典文学的不同之处在于它的非正式文体、个性与主体性的表现，其关于主体性的记载比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》更早。
从一开始,这篇文章的价值被认为低于诗歌:我在罗大經(?1240- 1248年)中发现了最古老的参考术语“散文”(?从1240年- 1248年之后)声明:“诗骚妙天下，而散文颇觉琐碎局促。”--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动时期著名作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。所有这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921），鲁迅（1933）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己关于中国散文来源的论断--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.

当周作人表明在马可波罗桥事件发生仅七个月后，又有可能写出一个糖果卖主（1924年）时，他被人批评为“瘫痪者”（鲁迅1934年，朱兆罗1943年）。当他写了一篇关于“苍蝇”的文章时，他在处理次要主题上受到指责。由于边际主义对论文是实质性的，因此这种谴责在于该类型的本质。提到的罗大经的正式谴责可以在1990年代再次发现。香港学生批评巴金斯的《思想》（Suixiang lu）中出现的文学风格太过直接和太过狡猾。但是这种观点并没有认识到本文的本质，它是作者思想的一种非常个性化的表达，并不局限于传统，因此在内容上也更加自由。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:32, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

当周作人表明在马可波罗桥事件发生仅七个月后，又有可能写出一个糖果卖主（1924年）时，他被人批评为“瘫痪者”（鲁迅1934年，朱兆罗1943年）。当他写了一篇关于“苍蝇”的文章时，他在处理次要主题上受到指责。由于边际主义对论文是实质性的，因此这种谴责在于该类型的本质。 20世纪90年代又出现了已经提到过的罗大经的正式谴责。香港学生批评巴金斯的《思想》（Suixiang lu）中出现的文学风格太过直接，不够优美。但是这种观点并没有认识到本文的本质，它是作者思想的一种非常个性化的表达，并不局限于传统，因此在内容上也更加自由。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 07:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).

就其本质而言，散文为自己的形式和内容设定了新的界限，所以，不仅不受意识形态的限制，而且为自己建立了自己的批判性亚文化。散文不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的证明，而且也是作者在变化环境中进行个人奋斗的证明，因为散文是进行自我反省的体裁.一些散文甚至通过直接用主观的经历，现实和艺术解构，主导叙事。像左翼的意识形态。

这里我想提下文学中的另一个作用，即强调文学对生活的影响，特别是濒临改革的时候，以这个视角来看的话，所有文学都是政治的(Jameson) 。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

尽管20世纪80年代见证了有关社会最好体系的政治问题的复兴，（也有关于文学和电影的）20世纪90年代又出现了一种仅仅不是政治性的、但却有关哲学道德的主题谱，散文家们把他们的角色首先定义为大众的消费倾向的对等物。散文似乎是中国唯一一种保持其教育主张的文体，但自称为“为艺术而艺术”的散文除外。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 08:02, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

在1980年代，关于最佳社会制度的讨论（包括一般文学和电影方面）的政治问题正在复苏，到1990年代纯粹是非政治性的和哲学-道德的主题谱，杂文学家定义了他们的主题。要发挥作用，首先要与群众的消费取向相对应。这篇文章似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的文学体裁，但有自称是"为艺术而艺术"的文学作品除外。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性论文的主题发展始于朱自清（《说梦说梦》：朱自清1928年）和1917年（本人的花园9.1923，《苍蝇》，1924年，《阅读》）的日常主题。在厕所上》（1936年）和1927年的停战，当时政治论文成为主流，直到1930年代后期，非政治论文被抗日运动完全淘汰。直到1970年代，它才恢复原状，那时候生活又恢复了正常，而正常事物由于长期缺席而成为人们关注的话题。再次在1990年代，由于对政治问题的兴趣减少，以及在新发现的大众消费主义世界中需要重新定位的需要，非政治性论文迅速兴起。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.

我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是用于宣传。这一点在20世纪40年代甚至50年代可能是正确的，但现在这种情况已经发生了变化，绝大多数出版物都证明了这一点。这就要求我们仔细观察：自1949年以来，政府一直鼓励政治上的肯定性文学，这就造成了一个统计上的悖论：90年代阅读的大多数散文家并不是肯定的作者和他们的文本，而是批评的散文家，他们的文本反对通过非政治性为政治服务的秩序，有时甚至是具有挑衅的特征。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 07:54, 28 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于其作品的文学品质，而在于政治价值。中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要理论叙述是，周作人是五四天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的杂志《回忆录》和《中国文学》上发表的著作中，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作者张爱玲从来没有因为合作而受到指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."

事实上，在他被谋杀后，他的司机丧生，他将自己视为“爱国地下战士”，并视同日本伪政权之间的合作被视为强制性。他自己的散文写作概念满足了建立一个民族国家的需求，并且更接近个人的理想。

“我真的不知道为什么，但是我感觉好像我出生在一个黑暗的时代。我承认，我们的森林里没有龙，虎和狼居住，但是无形的“怪物”和“妖精”仍然存在到处走动，并试图吞噬我们的灵魂。[...]最让我震惊的是，这所监狱中缺乏自由，我们作家被扔了进去。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:58, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

面对“祖先崇拜”中的传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只能通过变化才能变成现在(周1919：7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦德·丽贝卡(Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecca，1767-1830)是一位法国小说家和自由主义政治家，除了法国大革命后的艺术自由外，他还呼吁引入以英国模式为基础的君主立宪制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:39, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

在“祖先崇拜”一文中，他面对传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只有通过变革才能成为现在(Zhou 1919:7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦·德·雷贝克(1767 - 1830)是法国的自由主义政治家和自由主义政治家，英国的君主制和革命都没有改变。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:58, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.

“文化大革命”之后散文数量的增加与作家写散文的能力提高有关，因为它具有对历史真相的内在主张，比其他类型的散文更能真实地表达个人经历。但是，这篇散文并不能保证客观真理：在主观的同时，散文家有意识地调解了自己的形象。这将报道的真相限制为一个主观的真相，并承担有意识地“纠正”真相的风险。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 08:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

乡愁是汪曾祺《家乡的野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此可以说，动人的散文构成了上。

- 在90年代后半期，在日趋形式化但实质上空虚的城市生活中，作者自己似乎也迷失在个体的主体性和日常的亵渎性与平庸性中。时间失去了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动被机械和自闭的行为所充斥。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).

另外像1993年以来的小说（贾平凹、飞渡；顾城、莺歌）和1995年以来的《新无界》中发现的普通语言的使用趋势，也不能在散文写作中得到证明。

- 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾、沈从文身上看到的小说现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的，其中之一是1981年巴金写的《小狗包弟》，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述式的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但除开可能会变得狂热和具有挑衅性的危险外，我想就散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位提些问题。
人们很少有时间去阅读，并且习惯于网上简略的可视信息。散文的精简会使其成为一个理想的媒介么？--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但出于狂妄和挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。

- 人们阅读等行动的时间少了，也习惯了通过网络减少视觉化的信息。散文的简洁性是否会使其成为理想的媒介？--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它生长于现有文学之中，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次的德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:03, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化的综合体，它展示着中国文化的精髓并极具全球影响力，因此它应该被列入世界记忆文献遗产名录。
关键词
西方文化，传统保护，德国翻译，中国文化具像化表现，全球兼容，世界遗产文献
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

在17世纪的Barock文学中，甚至对物理行为也进行了广泛的描述。

根据“累积性”，每个人都是历史的产物，而文学是基于先前的文献，因此，该传呼机的作者认为翻译时必须考虑这一背景。

关于梦中清情的最好的研究是安东尼·于（Anthony Yu）的研究，他将其理解为欲望和梦的中心主题。 “清香在塑造《石头的故事》的结构和意义的几乎每个方面的中心作用都不能否认。”（Anthony Yu 2001，54）。

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:52, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

这些梦讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。不幸的恋人也有西方文学的传统,他们构成一个原型,如英雄和利安得、皮拉摩斯和提斯柏,特里斯坦与伊索尔德,凝花和Blanscheflur特洛伊罗斯和克雷西达,后者被认为是阿瑟·布鲁克斯的模型,他在1562年写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,从而直接影响了莎士比亚。
玛丽安·加利克认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

相反，我处理沟通的方式是这样的。"让我们建立一个用户个性化主界面，并与大数据进行对比，学习如何才能最好地吸引这个用户的注意力，让他/她投给总统候选人A或B"；"让我们检查这个用户的浏览记录，并与大数据进行对比，建立关联，估计他是否（如果 "是 "什么时候）会得帕金森，以决定是否拒绝他的贷款或健康保险。"--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明(政府可以打击恐怖主义，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以遏制通奸)。

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿(因为职位相距太远)。

4.民粹主义和民粹主义观点获得支持。

5.社会两极分化。

英译汉有一种动机是不透露一个人对该对象了解多少，因为该对象可能会对合法性、制度等提出质疑。

7.最后要解决的是思维问题：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口惠而实不至的话--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:41, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最具价值的资源。大型科技公司已经利用用户的数据来牟取暴利的同时，与之相关的立法却被推迟，受到数据突破国界（对于科技公司来说没有国界）的挑战。
尽管像欧盟一样以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济仍在保护隐私和数据安全，但中美两国的科技公司已经开始打入欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.
如果我们想避免第6点所列的后果，那么公众需要认识到这一点，国家和国家组织需要制定立法，以便：(a) 保护隐私和数据安全；(b)赋予用户对其用户的控制权，包括对数据的商业使用，使他们能够从使用自己的数据所获得的利润中分得一杯羹。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

新发展提供了新可能。我们需要确保除了少数的技术公司和恐怖分子使用这一强大的新技术来达到他们的目的，还需要确保大量的智能设备的使用者不再沉迷于其中，不再被技术操控，从而重拾尊严，重获隐私和实现意志自由。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

Woesler是2019-2020年德国科学基金会（Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft）研究学院“计算机模拟的媒体文化 ”的高级研究员，并在2020年与贝塔斯曼基金会举办了相关研讨会。Woesler也是德国Witten/Herdecke大学的研究员，调查儿童和年轻人的日常屏幕时间对其健康的影响。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

History of Translation Studies 7

2020-12-21T16:43:41Z

Su Lin: /* 2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Translation Studies'''=

==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center>
===Abstract===
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.
===Key Words===
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury
===题目===
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思
===摘要===
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。
===关键词===
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里
===1. Introduction ===
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5).

Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.

The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.

===2. Descriptive translation definition===
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).

Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).

Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence.

There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.

Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).

The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.

===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade.

Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.

===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ).

As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88).

In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars.

The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).

===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87).

Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation.

Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research.

Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013).

As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37).

Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation.

However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).

===3. James Holmes===
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School.

It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.

===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works.

He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms.

On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation.

The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories:

1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible;

2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects;

3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language;

4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible.

Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences.

These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.

===4. Gideon Toury===
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations.

The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.

He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective.

Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others.

Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text.

It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept.

Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials.

Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation.

Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence:

1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system.

2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems.

3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur.

4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.

It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator.

Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies.

Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131)

However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis.

Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice.

Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.

===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures.

While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture.

On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.

===4.2 Translation and postulates===
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators.

A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.

===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original.

An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign.

Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message.

Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.

===5. Conclusion===
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.

Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies.

In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter.

In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors.

Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research.

It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.

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Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.

刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.

顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.

张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.

张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.

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--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia 英语语言文学==
<center> Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞， 202020080599</center>

===Abstract===
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.

===Key Words===
foreignizing translation; national culture

===题目===
异化翻译与民族文化发展

===摘要===
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。

===关键词===
异化翻译；民族文化

===1. Introduction===
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015)

A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137)

It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.

Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.

===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.

====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32)

In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius had a rich view of literal translation. Tan Zaixi concluded it as : (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43)

During the Renaissance period, the German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)

In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115)

Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning: If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)

From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.

Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228)

Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)

Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)

Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put forword in Lawrence Venuti's book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)

====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)

Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Translation"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)

In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)

The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)

With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)

===3.Discussion===
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

=====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development=====
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)

The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)

The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

=====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges=====
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to a great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)

Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language.

Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation.

Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the translated text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality.

=====3.2.1. Readability of Translation=====
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.

This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases.

In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” is translated as “露华浓” and “Lamer” is translated as”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods.

Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)

For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers.

However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)

====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture should be viewed form two perspectives: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world. But it may also cause difficulties in spreading the source language culture; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.But foreignizing translation may also cause a lack of national self-confidence.

=====3.3.1. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Source Culture=====
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of the Czech Republic, the Czech translator John Bowring used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. At the same time, he brought the Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East. But it is far inferior to the former. Some scholars think it is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the situation is changing for China’s international influence is gradually increasing. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

In fact, China, with its long history, has had an influence that cannot be ignored by the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has influenced the development of civilization in the world. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 106).

In order to make the broad Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, "when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language by copying Chinese syntax." (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257).

The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables the world to understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)

The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 107)

=====3.3.2. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Target Culture=====
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. All kinds of culture need to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system by imitating that of the Western culture. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was more open in literary. It formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre, are full of colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9).

During the Renaissance, humanist writers and scholars express their cultural opinions by reviving ancient Greek and Roman culture. It is the reference and absorption of different cultures that made the Renaissance culture fruitful. And foreignization translation is just a translation strategy that can make cultural reference work better.(Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can develop if it can recognize and respect culural differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, a culture accept the foreignization of other cultures can dvelop better. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.

However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization towards the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence on the local culture of the target country. (Wang Kefei 1997, 45)

===4. Conclusion===
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages on the levels of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood to achieve self-enrichment. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the cultural exchanges between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.

In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when used. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.

In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.

In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should also be viewed dialectically from different perspectives.

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== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606 英语语言文学==

===Abstract===

This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.

===Key Words===
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism

===题目===

赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析

===摘要===

本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。

===关键词===
后殖民；东方主义；批评

====Introduction====
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.

====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism.

The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.

====Orientalism====
In Orientalism, a classic work of postcolonial criticism, said established his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on the basis of extensive text interpretation. Orientalism is not only a way of power operation, but also a way of power operation. Said takes the colonial discourse as the research object, that is, from the perspective of how the West views the East, criticizes the Orientalism aesthetics embodied in the western literary works, including the Western superiority, civilization and progress, while the Oriental ignorance, barbarism and backwardness.

According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence.

Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）

Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.

What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves.

Orientalists insist that the west can understand and describe the eastern world not because of its own efforts, but because the West has an effective operating mechanism. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of Orientalists, the East is unable to express itself. It is an absent and silent "other". It is only controlled and expressed by the "certain dominant framework" of the West. The image of the East has never changed, that is, it can never define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is a man-made system of theory and practice". Said believes that the East presented in various Western works is not the true representation of the East as a historical existence, but a cultural concept and discourse practice of Westerners. Therefore, the East is not the East, but the East is "orientalized".

Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.

Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient.

Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.

It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.

The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.

In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.

Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "

At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.

The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.

====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====

In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture.

In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.

After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.

Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.

In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them.

While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.

It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture.

If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society.

Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.

Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.

In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.

Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive.

He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act.

Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))

====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====

Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.

First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position.

The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.

Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest.

Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.

Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.

====Conclusion====
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.

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== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==

<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center>

===Abstract===

Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics.

Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.

===Key words===

Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history

===题目===

解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究

===摘要===

解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。

笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。

===关键词===

解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史

===Introduction===

''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)

Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

===1.Literature Review===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics'
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）

====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====

Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics,
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）

The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80)

With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)

Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====

Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）

As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====

As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）

Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)

====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====

Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)

Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）

Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

====2.2. Lin Shu====

Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）

At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）

Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）

But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)

====2.3. Huang Jizhong====

Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）

His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===

The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）

====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====

The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)

=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====

Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）

1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)

林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)

黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75）

The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)

According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64)

Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)

=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====

Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81)

Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)

It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250)

3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)

林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)

黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）

When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)

Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)

These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)

During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====

4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40)

However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )

5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)

林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)

黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）

This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33)

This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32)

In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)

====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====

British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)

=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====

A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)

林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)

黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）

In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)

Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84)

The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)

Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====

Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：

7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）

林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）

黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)

From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）

林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)

黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）

A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

===Conclusion===

In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

===References===

*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.

*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.

*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.

*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125.

*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.

*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.

*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.

*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==

<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center>

===Abstract===
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Key words===
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies

===题目===
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究

===摘要===
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略

===Chapter1 Introduction===

Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention.

That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.

This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings.

===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===

====2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation====

In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.

When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)

In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.

====2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation====

In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note.

Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)

Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===

====3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory====

The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.

In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)

Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)

====3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation====

Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators.

To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation.

In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Chapter4 Text Analysis===

This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.

====4.1 Lexical Equivalence====

(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband.

Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better.

In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.

(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”.

In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.

(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother.

So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.

(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.

====4.2 Syntactic Equivalence====

(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.

(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.

(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”.

When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.

(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.

====4.3 Textual Equivalence====

(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.

Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level.

In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.

(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely.

However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.

(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.

Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too.

Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.

(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.

====4.4 Stylistic Equivalence====

(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.

There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence.

(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.

(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism.

===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===

Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.

====5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment====

In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.

====5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism====

Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.

i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation====

The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.

i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation====

It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.

i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism====

A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.

i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

===Chapter6 Conclusion===

Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory.

It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved.

In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.

This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time.

===References===

*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.

*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.

*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.

*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.

*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.

*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.

*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.

*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.

*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.

*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.

*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.

*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.

*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.

--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==

===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===

<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center>

===Abstract===
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.
===Key words===
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history

===题目===
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新

===摘要===
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。

===关键词===
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史

===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===

Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)

Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)

===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===

'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''

In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)

There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)

To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)

In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)

'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''

Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)

The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83)

Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)

As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)

Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)

For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)

In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)

It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)

'''2.3 Translation is Science'''

In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)

===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===

Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)

In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)

What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)

However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)

First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)

'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''

"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)

Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)

In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)

He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)

Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)

'''3.2 Translation Theory'''

Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)

Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)

Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)

In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)

'''3.3 Translation History'''

Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)

Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)

The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)

===4. conclusion===

From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

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='''Translation Criticism'''=

==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==

===Abstract===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.

===Key words===

translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication

===题目===

论翻译批评—基于回译

===摘要===

无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。

===关键词===

翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际

===1. Introduction of translation criticism===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.

According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context.

Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.

===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===

There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.

Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C.

We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)

What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.

===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===

As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.

====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====

Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45)

Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)

====3.2 Back translation in texts====

Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).

If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:

(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)

Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)

Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)

This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)

Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:

我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”

By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:

(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)

Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。

This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:

1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)

2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)

By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

===4. Application of back translation===

Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.

At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated.

Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)

Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.

Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.

===5. Conclusion===

As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method.

There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

===6. References===

Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.

Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.

Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.

Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.

Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．

He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.

Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.

Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.

Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.

Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．

Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.

Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.

Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==

=== Abstract ===
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.
===Keywords ===
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''
===摘要===
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。

===关键词===
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》
===I.Introduction===
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20)

Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437)

From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation.

“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)

Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.

It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.

===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)

These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor.
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.(Yang Xi,2009:19)

=====2.1.1Transliteration=====
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).

Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.

Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.

Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)

好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）

Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)

别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）

If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)

赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）

By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)

我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）

For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)

因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）

All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.

=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====

Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).

Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.
Let's look at the following examples.

Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）

Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）

Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）

Zhu’s version:

杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）

Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.

Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）

Zhu’s version:

葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）

In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.

Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）

In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.

=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====

“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）

A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:

You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)

那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)

Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.

Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.

Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）

Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。

Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）

Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。

Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun.

What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.

Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.

Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）

Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）

Shylock:I have a daughter;
Would any of the stock of Barbbas
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）

Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）

Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）

Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）

From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.

In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.

Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）

Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。

Zhu’s version:

萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）

Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）

Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）

In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.

====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.（Yan Xiaojiang,2010:41)

When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3)

当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）

Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)

或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）

Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)

那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）

Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)

少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）

I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)

我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）

Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)

如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）

I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)

我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）

A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.

He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.
(Act 1, Scene 3)

他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）

For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)

因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）

Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)

借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）

And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)

随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）

The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.

In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;
(Act 1, Scene 1)

在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）

Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)

你的父亲一向是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）

This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)

这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。（2001:46）

I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)

我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）

If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)

如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）

The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.

As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.

In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. For some foreign unique cultural phenomenon, the translator can not find the corresponding words to describe in Chinese. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, some translators may adopt domestication to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.

====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====

“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.

Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.（Xao Yixin,2013:27)

Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.(Yang Xi,2009:09)

Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.(Yan Xiaojiang,2011:99)

====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====

During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.(Li Zonggang,2017:104)

Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).

Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.(Lu Xun,1981,157)

Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. （Li Zonggang,2017:105)

Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.（Yang Yuling,2006:91)

===III.Conclusion===

Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.

On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original.

On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.

===IV.References===

[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.

[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.

[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press].

[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51.

[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].

[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].

[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].

[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.

[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.

[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.

[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.

[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.

[13]Li Zonggang李宗刚.(2017).”如何辩证地看待鲁迅与其他文人的骂战[J]”.[How to dialectically treat the debate between Lu Xun and other literati?].”中国文学批评”.[Chinese literary Criticism],(02):104-111.

[14]Yang Yuling杨玉玲.(2006).”鲁迅梁实秋翻译论战综述[J]”.[A summary of Lu Xun liang Shiqiu's translation controversy].”中共福建省委党校学报”.[Journal of CPC Fujian Provincial Party School],(11):88-91.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==

==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==

===Abstract===
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.

===Keywords===
free translation, literal translation, application.

===摘要===
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。

===关键词===
直译，意译，应用。

===I. Introduction===
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.

The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.

===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.

"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.

===III. Definition of Two Translation===
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''

Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)

Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.

You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.

For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.

'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)

In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.

For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively.
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.

===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''

Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:

(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。

(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。

For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language.
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.
For example:

(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。

(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。

In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning.
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.

'''4.2 The application of free translation'''

First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.
For example:

(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。

(2) Cast pearls before swine.
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。

Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs.
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.

'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''

'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.
For example,

For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.

Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。

Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.

'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.'''

What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example,

John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。

The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.

'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:

The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。

'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:

Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.

Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.

Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.

Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.

'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''

Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages.

The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored.

Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)

These imageries should be translated freely.
For example:

(1) Teach fish to swim.
Free translation: 班门弄斧。

(2) Beat the dog before the lion.
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。

(3) One must howl with the wolves.
Free translation: 入乡随俗。

(4) Love me, love my dog.
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。

(5) Put the cart before the horse.
Free translation: 本末倒置。
5 The relationship of
These imageries can be translated literally.

For example:

(1) The style is the man.
Literal translation: 文如其人。

(2) To be on thin ice.
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。

(3) Hasty makes waste.
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。

(4) Fish in troubled water.
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。

(5) Business is business.
Literal translation: 公事公办。

(6) Honey sweet words.
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。

(7) A gentleman’s agreement.
Literal translation: 君子协定。

'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''

Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world.

In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:

(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。

(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。

(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。

(4) A new broom sweeps clean.
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。

(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。

(6) The pot calls the kettle black.
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.
For example:

(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。

(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。

(3) Out of sight, out of mind.
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。

(4) Like father, like son.
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。

(5) Well begun, half done.
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。

===V. The relation between literal and free translation===
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect.
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.

===VI. Conclusion===
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible.

===References===
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.

[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.

[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108

[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266

[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.

[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Cultural Differences'''=

==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611
==='''Abstract'''===
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.
===Key words===
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods
===题目===
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译
===摘要===
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。
===关键词===
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略
===1. Introduction===
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===2. Features of Idioms===

====2. 1 Vividness====
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 2 Historic Background====
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 3 Stability====
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 4 Semantic Unity====
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====2. 5 Euphony====
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===

====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.

Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)

In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====4. 1 Translation Principles====
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)

The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.

====4. 2 Translation Methods====
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)

For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

===5. Conclusion===
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)

Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)

===6. References ===
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3

Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.

Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.

Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.

Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169

Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.

Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.

Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].

==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==
马娟Ma Juan202020080623
===Abstract===
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.
===Key words===
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies

===题目===
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略

===摘要===
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。
===关键词===
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略

===1.Introduction===
===1.1 Research Background===
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014)

However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08)

As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

===1.2 Research Significance===
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)

That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)

===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)

The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015)

The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)

===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.

====2.1 Historical Culture====
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)

On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)

====2.2 Regional Culture====
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)

For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016)

Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)
====2.3 Custom Culture====
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016)
2.4.Religious Culture
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)
====2.4 Digital Culture====
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).

For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)

====2.5 Social Code====
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014)

Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014)

Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)

===3.The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.1.Lexical Representation====
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.2.Pragmatic Rules====
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)

For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.3.Way of Thinking====
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.4.Historical and Cultural Background====
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）

===4.The Coping Strategies of The Effects===
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)
====4.1.Domestication And Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)
====4.2.Natural Equivalence====
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)
4.2.1.Transliteration
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)

====4.3.Flexible Handling====
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)

For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)

===5.Conclusion===
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)

===References===
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.

Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.

Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.

Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.

Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.

Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.

Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.

Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.

Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.

--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center>
===Abstract===
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.

===Key words===
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies

===题目===
多元系统理论和文化转向

===摘要===
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。

===关键词===
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究

===1. Introduction===
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.

===2. Development of polysystem theory===

====2. 1 Research Background====

=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).

=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).

====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113).

Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93).

By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46).

He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.

① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).

③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).

====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93).

The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).

In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).

For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).

For example:

Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).

Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。

However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.

Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).

Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。

Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。

However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.

The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).

===3. Development of Cultural Turn===
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110).

Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11).

Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110).

The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88).

Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).

At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88).

Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

===4. Judgement===
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.

Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4. 1Advantages====
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).

====4. 2 Disadvantages====
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).

The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).

===5. Conclusion===
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138).

When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.

===6. References===
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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.

Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374.

Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].

William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.

Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197.

Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64.

Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138.

JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67.

Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].

Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94.

Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206.

Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96.

Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95.

Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49.

Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112.

Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.

==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia No.202020080662 英语语言文学==

===Abstract===

Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

===Key Words===

Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills

===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===

===摘要===

翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。

===关键词===

文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧

===Introduction===

The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.

===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===

Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.

2.1 The Historical Background

Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.

First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.

We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓).

As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居).

Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.

2.2 The Social Customs

Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.

“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries.

In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda".

Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations.

In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation.

2.3 The Thinking Mode

“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking.

Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.

Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it.

The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.

===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===

Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.

3.1 Lexical Gap

Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word.

Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.

The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.

3.2 Semantic Conflict

Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.

In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.

In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19)

When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.

3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences

Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)

Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.

Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils".

In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行为上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么像一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)

===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===

The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.

4.1 Focus on the work itself

When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood.

In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.

In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.

4.2 Focus on the reader

In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.

Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.

Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)

4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'.

The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)

In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.

Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.

As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.

===Conclusion===

Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns. No.202020080662
===References===

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Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.

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==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==

=='''Abstract'''==
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.

=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation

The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''摘要'''==
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。

=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译

Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Introduction'''==

Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.

The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time.

There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.

This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.

This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.

Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.

Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.

Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.

=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.

1.1 Definition

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).

1.2 Details About Domestication

There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.

Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159).

Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）

Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)

Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.

He’s always been strong as a mule．

他一向壮得像头牛。

‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).

1.3 Details About Foreignization

Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).

Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).

With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).

1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization

Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20).

For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.

Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations.

For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.

Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==

===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.

2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).

A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.

Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.

2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China

The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).

That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).

Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.

3.1 The Translation Purpose

3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy.

On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used.

So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.

3.2 The Target Reader

In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.

Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.

He is a modern Samson.

(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。

(2)他是一个大力士。

Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).

All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.

3.3 The Text Type

3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable.

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy.

=='''Conclusion'''==

In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.

==''' References'''==

Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.

Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.

Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.

Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.

Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.

Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.

Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.

Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.

Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.

Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.

Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.

Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.

Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.

Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.

[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.

Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center>

===Abstract===
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing.
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014).

===Keywords===
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies

===题目===
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究

===摘要===
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。

===关键词===
文化差异；口译；应对策略

===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.

'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''

Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different.
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context.
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.

In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)

'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''

"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks".

Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）

'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''

Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well.
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."

As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)

===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===

With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.

'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''

Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)

Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack."

When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens".

"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)

'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''

The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.

In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.

The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.

The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.

Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)

===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===

The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.

Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency".

'''III.I. Accuracy'''

Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.

'''III.II. Immediacy'''

Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.

'''III.III. Fluency'''

Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)

Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.

This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）

===IV. Discussion===

In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.

'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''

In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.

Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.

'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''

The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.

As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.

'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''

Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)

After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)

===V. Conclusion===

Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.

This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.

===References===

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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.

Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)

Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)

Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.

Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.

Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.

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==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

==Abstract==

As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.

==Key Words==

TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory

==摘要==

中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。

==关键词==

旅游宣传资料翻译文化差异目的论

==I. Introduction==

Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.

TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)

Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.

This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.

==II. Literature Review==

2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)

2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)

TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)

2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials

As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:

Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)

Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)

2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials

Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:

First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well.
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)

Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.

==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==

The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58).

3.1 Differences in Food Culture

Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.

3.2 Differences in Customs

Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively.
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

3.3 Differences in Religions

The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.

==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==

4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.

4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach

According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge.

According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.

4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory

In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored.

In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord.

Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.

Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.

Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.

Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.

4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)

Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.

Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.

The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.

According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.

4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory

Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.

The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.

What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)

==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==

Skopostheory

Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.

5.1 Transliteration with Explanation
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.

Example 1.
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)

Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)

Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。

The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

5.2 Literal Translation

Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:

Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)

5.3 Free Translation
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.

Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce

There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)

Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。

Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.

Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.

The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet.

Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)

The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)

In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)

Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

==VI. Conclusion==

Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.

Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory.

Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.

There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.

==References==
Bassnett, S. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge

Nida E. A. & Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

Nord C. ''Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis'' [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Nord C. ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

Reiss K. ''Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation'' [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社

Vermeer H. J. ''A Framework for a General Theory of Translating'' [M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学

Vermeer H. J. ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action'' [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge

Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司

Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社

Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社

Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社

Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社

Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社

Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社

Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》

Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》

Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社

Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社

Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2005). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社

--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Functional Equivalence'''=

==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==

==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong MTI 英语口译 202070080641 ==
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center>

===Abstract===
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.

===Key Words===
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods

===题目===
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究

===摘要===
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法

===I. Introduction===
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)

===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993）

====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)

In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)

Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)

====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.

Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)

====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)

Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.

As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.

At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)

Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.

===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)

Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.

Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.

In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:

=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers.

E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .”
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.

In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.

The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)

=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”

The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.

=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:

“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”

When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.

The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.

It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.

Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.

There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.

An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:

In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.

The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.

For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”

The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.

The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.

Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.

Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

====4.1 Explanatory Translation====
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”

====4.2 Omission in Translation====
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”

====4.3 Re-creation Translation====
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,

====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text.
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

===V. Conclusion===
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.

===References===
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964.
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.]

--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran 202070080643 英语口译==

===Abstract===

Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.

===Key words===
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu

===题目===
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例

===摘要===
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。

===关键词===
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城

===I. Introduction===

This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence.
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of ''Cong Cong'' from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.

===II. Theoretical Framework===

====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his ''Towards a Science of Translating'', Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)

In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', in which he developed the contents of ''Towards a Science of Translation''. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)

In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).

====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====

=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence=====
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===
The earliest study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of ''Cong Cong'' in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan 2017，189).

Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao 2015，104).

Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37).

Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators===

====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

At the beginning of ''Cong Cong'', a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as ''Foreign Literature and Art'', ''The World of English'', and ''Journal of World Chinese Studies''. (Poetry Hall, 2019)

One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?

===V. Case Analysis===

====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?

Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?

Analysis:

In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.

Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights.

Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。

Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.

Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well.

Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了；

Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.

Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.

Analysis:

In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace.
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago.

Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to specific things we see in the real world, rather than imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate.

In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version.

Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''

Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''

Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''

Analysis:

In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly.

Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；'''

Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.
'''

Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''

Analysis:

In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.

Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.

====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''

Ge：'''Haste'''

Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''

Analysis:

In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.

Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way.

Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。

Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.

Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original.

Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''

Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?
'''
Analysis:

In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.

In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.

The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier.

Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''

Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''

Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''

Analysis:

In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation.

Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。

Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.

Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.

Analysis:

In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly?

Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；'''

Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''

Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''

Analysis:

In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence.

Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；'''

Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''

Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''

Analysis:

In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.

===VI. Conclusion===
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style.

In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”.

What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.

To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to.

===VII. References===

* GOLDBLATT,(1955). H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) "The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature". New York: The Columbia University Press.

* Ge Haowen. (2011). ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.

* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. (2016). "On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation". Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. 139-143.

* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).

* Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. (2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.

* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]．现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．

* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10): 104-106.

* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社,

* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.

* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.

* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College 四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.

* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.

* Yang Fan杨帆.(2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An Analysis of English Translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.

* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.

* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04): 60.

* Zhai Zihui翟子惠, Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.

--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 16:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646

=== '''Abstract''' ===

In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.

==='''Key words'''===

semantic translation; communicative translation; application

==='''题目'''===
语义翻译与交际翻译

==='''摘要'''===
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。

==='''关键字'''===
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用

==='''1.Introduction'''===
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).

=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17).

At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).

The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).

The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)

==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .
Liao Qiyi gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):

===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).

===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).

===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.

===='''3.4 Language Style'''====
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.5 Length'''====
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63).

Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).

==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===

Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).

According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62).

The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).

As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).

However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).

The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).

==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===

These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).

Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).

Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98).

In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63).

On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52).

The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32).

===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).
Example 1:

Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.

Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。

It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition.

Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).

In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).

===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).
Example 1:
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.

Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。

“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).

Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).

Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38).

Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).
.

If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).

===Reference===

Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.

Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.

Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.

Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==

<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center>

===Abstract===
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.

===Key Words===
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例

===摘要===
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。

===关键词===
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论

===Introduction===
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.

===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text.
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).

===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)

The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)

====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)

To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102)

====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)

To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)

===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===

''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)

''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)
=====The Use of Reduplication=====
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.

Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。

The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.

Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。

The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24)

Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.

Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……

The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)

The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)

=====The Use of Adverbs=====
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)

Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.

Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。

Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)

Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.

Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。

Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)

Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.

Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子，勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”

Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)

Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.

Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。

Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)

To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)

=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.

Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。

Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.

Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。

There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)

====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)

Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.

Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！

Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10)

Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.

Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。

Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)

=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.

Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！

Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.

Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。

Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)

The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)

===Conclusion===
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
===References===
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.

Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.

Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.

Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.

Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.

Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.

Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.

Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.

Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.

Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.

Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.

Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.

Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.

Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.

Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95.
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.

Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.

Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.

Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 7

2020-12-21T16:39:38Z

Su Lin: /* I.Introduction */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Translation Studies'''=

==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center>
===Abstract===
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.
===Key Words===
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury
===题目===
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思
===摘要===
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。
===关键词===
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里
===1. Introduction ===
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5).

Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.

The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.

===2. Descriptive translation definition===
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).

Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).

Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence.

There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.

Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).

The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.

===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade.

Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.

===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ).

As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88).

In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars.

The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).

===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87).

Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation.

Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research.

Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013).

As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37).

Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation.

However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).

===3. James Holmes===
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School.

It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.

===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works.

He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms.

On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation.

The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories:

1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible;

2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects;

3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language;

4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible.

Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences.

These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.

===4. Gideon Toury===
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations.

The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.

He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective.

Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others.

Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text.

It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept.

Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials.

Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation.

Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence:

1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system.

2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems.

3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur.

4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.

It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator.

Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies.

Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131)

However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis.

Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice.

Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.

===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures.

While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture.

On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.

===4.2 Translation and postulates===
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators.

A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.

===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original.

An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign.

Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message.

Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.

===5. Conclusion===
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.

Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies.

In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter.

In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors.

Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research.

It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.

===References===
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.

刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.

顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.

张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.

张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.

马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004

--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia 英语语言文学==
<center> Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞， 202020080599</center>

===Abstract===
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.

===Key Words===
foreignizing translation; national culture

===题目===
异化翻译与民族文化发展

===摘要===
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。

===关键词===
异化翻译；民族文化

===1. Introduction===
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015)

A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137)

It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.

Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.

===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.

====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32)

In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius had a rich view of literal translation. Tan Zaixi concluded it as : (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43)

During the Renaissance period, the German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)

In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115)

Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning: If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)

From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.

Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228)

Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)

Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)

Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put forword in Lawrence Venuti's book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)

====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)

Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Translation"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)

In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)

The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)

With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)

===3.Discussion===
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

=====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development=====
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)

The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)

The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

=====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges=====
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to a great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)

Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language.

Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation.

Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the translated text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality.

=====3.2.1. Readability of Translation=====
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.

This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases.

In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” is translated as “露华浓” and “Lamer” is translated as”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods.

Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)

For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers.

However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)

====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture should be viewed form two perspectives: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world. But it may also cause difficulties in spreading the source language culture; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.But foreignizing translation may also cause a lack of national self-confidence.

=====3.3.1. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Source Culture=====
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of the Czech Republic, the Czech translator John Bowring used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. At the same time, he brought the Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East. But it is far inferior to the former. Some scholars think it is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the situation is changing for China’s international influence is gradually increasing. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

In fact, China, with its long history, has had an influence that cannot be ignored by the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has influenced the development of civilization in the world. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 106).

In order to make the broad Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, "when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language by copying Chinese syntax." (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257).

The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables the world to understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)

The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 107)

=====3.3.2. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Target Culture=====
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. All kinds of culture need to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system by imitating that of the Western culture. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was more open in literary. It formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre, are full of colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9).

During the Renaissance, humanist writers and scholars express their cultural opinions by reviving ancient Greek and Roman culture. It is the reference and absorption of different cultures that made the Renaissance culture fruitful. And foreignization translation is just a translation strategy that can make cultural reference work better.(Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can develop if it can recognize and respect culural differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, a culture accept the foreignization of other cultures can dvelop better. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.

However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization towards the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence on the local culture of the target country. (Wang Kefei 1997, 45)

===4. Conclusion===
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages on the levels of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood to achieve self-enrichment. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the cultural exchanges between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.

In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when used. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.

In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.

In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should also be viewed dialectically from different perspectives.

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--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606==

===Abstract===

This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.

===Key Words===
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism

===题目===

赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析

===摘要===

本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。

===关键词===
后殖民；东方主义；批评

====Introduction====
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.
Edward said, a scholar from Bamei. In 1978, he published Orientalism, his masterpiece of postcolonial criticism. Orientalism is not a study of the East itself, but an Orientalism thought existing in the minds of the West. By criticizing Orientalists and deconstructing cultural hegemony, it tries to transcend the basic stand of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural diversity, thus forming a new relationship of dialogue, mutual penetration and symbiosis between the East and the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism.
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend of thought, postcolonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology and philosophy. It is widely involved in cultural imperialism, colonial discourse and Western representation of eastern culture, reflecting on the historical facts of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity and the relationship among race, class and gender. The core idea of said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the power discourse mechanism implied in Orientalism, to reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, to explore the strategies for disintegrating cultural hegemony, to criticize the colonial discourse and cultural colonialism in Orientalism, cultural imperialism and cultural hegemonism, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thoughts since colonialism in the post colonial era 。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.
The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: Criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, reappearance of the oppressed historical memory of the colony, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colony, discussion of the unique identity and situation of women in the third world, attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of collusion between ideological products and colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and text theory, as well as his practice of post colonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial criticism methodology system.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Orientalism====
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.
In Orientalism, a classic work of postcolonial criticism, said established his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on the basis of extensive text interpretation. Orientalism is not only a way of power operation, but also a way of power operation. Said takes the colonial discourse as the research object, that is, from the perspective of how the West views the East, criticizes the Orientalism aesthetics embodied in the western literary works, including the Western superiority, civilization and progress, while the Oriental ignorance, barbarism and backwardness.--User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence.
According to said, Orientalism exists in three areas of discussion: academia, the ontological understanding of the binary opposition between the East and the west, and the colonial process. Said uses Lacan's psychoanalysis method to study western culture and points out that Orientalism is the embodiment of psychological experience of self and other in western culture. The composition of any person's self-image is based on the coexistence of identity and other. Because of this religious bias, many Oriental Scholars, when one strips away the machine of footnotes and sources, are merely guessing, asserting and groundless judgments, without concrete evidence. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）
Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.
Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves.
The most easily accepted meaning is as an academic research discipline. In fact, the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes or studies the East, whether anthropologist, sociologist, historian or linguist, is an Orientalist, whether he or she is facing specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientalists is that the former writes about the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the role is passive acceptance; for the former, it is the power of observation and research. In short, it is the author and the object of writing. Therefore, in the Orientalist's Orientalism Research, the East is shown as a rigid, stagnant and unchanging image symbol, which needs others to examine and even need others to provide their own knowledge. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized".
Orientalists insist that the west can understand and describe the eastern world not because of its own efforts, but because the West has an effective operating mechanism. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of Orientalists, the East is unable to express itself. It is an absent and silent "other". It is only controlled and expressed by the "certain dominant framework" of the West. The image of the East has never changed, that is, it can never define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is a man-made system of theory and practice". Said believes that the East presented in various Western works is not the true representation of the East as a historical existence, but a cultural concept and discourse practice of Westerners. Therefore, the East is not the East, but the East is "orientalized".--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.
Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient.
Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.
Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.
It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.
The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.
In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "
Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.
The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====

In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture.
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.
In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.
After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.
Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them.
In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.
While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture.
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society.
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.
Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.
Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive.
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act.
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position.
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest.
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Conclusion====
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.

[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.

[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.

[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).

[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.

[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.

[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。

[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。

[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。

[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。

[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。

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== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==

<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center>

===Abstract===

Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics.

Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.

===Key words===

Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history

===题目===

解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究

===摘要===

解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。

笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。

===关键词===

解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史

===Introduction===

''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)

Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

===1.Literature Review===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics'
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）

====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====

Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics,
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）

The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80)

With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)

Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====

Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）

As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====

As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）

Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)

====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====

Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)

Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）

Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

====2.2. Lin Shu====

Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）

At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）

Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）

But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)

====2.3. Huang Jizhong====

Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）

His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===

The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）

====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====

The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)

=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====

Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）

1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)

林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)

黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75）

The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)

According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64)

Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)

=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====

Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81)

Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)

It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250)

3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)

林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)

黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）

When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)

Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)

These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)

During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====

4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40)

However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )

5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)

林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)

黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）

This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33)

This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32)

In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)

====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====

British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)

=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====

A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)

林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)

黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）

In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)

Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84)

The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)

Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====

Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：

7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）

林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）

黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)

From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）

林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)

黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）

A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

===Conclusion===

In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

===References===

*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.

*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.

*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.

*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125.

*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.

*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.

*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.

*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==

<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center>

===Abstract===
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Key words===
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies

===题目===
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究

===摘要===
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略

===Chapter1 Introduction===

Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention.

That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.

This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings.

===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===

====2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation====

In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.

When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)

In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.

====2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation====

In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note.

Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)

Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===

====3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory====

The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.

In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)

Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)

====3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation====

Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators.

To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation.

In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Chapter4 Text Analysis===

This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.

====4.1 Lexical Equivalence====

(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband.

Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better.

In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.

(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”.

In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.

(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother.

So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.

(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.

====4.2 Syntactic Equivalence====

(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.

(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.

(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”.

When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.

(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.

====4.3 Textual Equivalence====

(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.

Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level.

In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.

(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely.

However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.

(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.

Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too.

Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.

(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.

====4.4 Stylistic Equivalence====

(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.

There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence.

(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.

(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism.

===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===

Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.

====5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment====

In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.

====5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism====

Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.

i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation====

The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.

i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation====

It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.

i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism====

A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.

i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

===Chapter6 Conclusion===

Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory.

It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved.

In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.

This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time.

===References===

*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.

*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.

*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.

*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.

*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.

*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.

*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.

*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.

*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.

*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.

*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.

*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.

*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.

--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==

===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===

<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center>

===Abstract===
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.
===Key words===
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history

===题目===
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新

===摘要===
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。

===关键词===
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史

===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===

Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)

Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)

===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===

'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''

In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)

There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)

To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)

In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)

'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''

Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)

The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83)

Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)

As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)

Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)

For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)

In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)

It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)

'''2.3 Translation is Science'''

In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)

===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===

Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)

In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)

What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)

However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)

First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)

'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''

"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)

Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)

In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)

He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)

Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)

'''3.2 Translation Theory'''

Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)

Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)

Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)

In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)

'''3.3 Translation History'''

Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)

Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)

The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)

===4. conclusion===

From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.

Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.

Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609.

Fan S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.

Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.

Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.

Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.

Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15.

Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.

Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.

Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.

Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

='''Translation Criticism'''=

==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==

===Abstract===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.

===Key words===

translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication

===题目===

论翻译批评—基于回译

===摘要===

无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。

===关键词===

翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际

===1. Introduction of translation criticism===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.

According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context.

Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.

===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===

There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.

Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C.

We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)

What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.

===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===

As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.

====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====

Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45)

Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)

====3.2 Back translation in texts====

Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).

If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:

(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)

Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)

Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)

This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)

Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:

我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”

By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:

(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)

Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。

This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:

1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)

2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)

By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

===4. Application of back translation===

Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.

At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated.

Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)

Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.

Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.

===5. Conclusion===

As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method.

There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

===6. References===

Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.

Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.

Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.

Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.

Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．

He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.

Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.

Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.

Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.

Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．

Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.

Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.

Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==

=== Abstract ===
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.
===Keywords ===
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''
===摘要===
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。

===关键词===
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》
===I.Introduction===
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20)

Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437)

From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation.

“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)

Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.

It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.

===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)

These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor.
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.

=====2.1.1Transliteration=====
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).

Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.

Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.

Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)

好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）

Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)

别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）

If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)

赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）

By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)

我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）

For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)

因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）

All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.

=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====

Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).

Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.
Let's look at the following examples.

Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）

Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）

Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）

Zhu’s version:

杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）

Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.

Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）

Zhu’s version:

葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）

In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.

Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）

In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.

=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====

“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）

A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:

You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)

那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)

Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.

Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.

Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）

Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。

Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）

Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。

Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun.

What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.

Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.

Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）

Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）

Shylock:I have a daughter;
Would any of the stock of Barbbas
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）

Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）

Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）

Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）

From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.

In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.

Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）

Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。

Zhu’s version:

萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）

Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）

Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）

In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.

====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.（Yan Xiaojiang,2010:41)

When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3)

当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）

Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)

或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）

Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)

那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）

Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)

少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）

I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)

我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）

Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)

如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）

I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)

我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）

A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.

He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.
(Act 1, Scene 3)

他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）

For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)

因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）

Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)

借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）

And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)

随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）

The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.

In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;
(Act 1, Scene 1)

在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）

Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)

你的父亲一向是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）

This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)

这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。（2001:46）

I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)

我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）

If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)

如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）

The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.

As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.

In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. For some foreign unique cultural phenomenon, the translator can not find the corresponding words to describe in Chinese. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, some translators may adopt domestication to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.

====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====

“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.

Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.（Xao Yixin,2013:27)

Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.(Yang Xi,2009:09)

Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.(Yan Xiaojiang,2011:99)

====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====

During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.(Li Zonggang,2017:104)

Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).

Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.(Lu Xun,1981,157)

Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. （Li Zonggang,2017:105)

Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.（Yang Yuling,2006:91)

===III.Conclusion===

Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.

On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original.

On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.

===IV.References===

[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.

[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.

[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press].

[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51.

[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].

[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].

[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].

[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.

[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.

[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.

[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.

[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.

[13]Li Zonggang李宗刚.(2017).”如何辩证地看待鲁迅与其他文人的骂战[J]”.[How to dialectically treat the debate between Lu Xun and other literati?].”中国文学批评”.[Chinese literary Criticism],(02):104-111.

[14]Yang Yuling杨玉玲.(2006).”鲁迅梁实秋翻译论战综述[J]”.[A summary of Lu Xun liang Shiqiu's translation controversy].”中共福建省委党校学报”.[Journal of CPC Fujian Provincial Party School],(11):88-91.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==

==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==

===Abstract===
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.

===Keywords===
free translation, literal translation, application.

===摘要===
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。

===关键词===
直译，意译，应用。

===I. Introduction===
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.

The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.

===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.

"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.

===III. Definition of Two Translation===
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''

Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)

Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.

You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.

For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.

'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)

In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.

For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively.
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.

===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''

Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:

(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。

(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。

For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language.
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.
For example:

(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。

(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。

In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning.
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.

'''4.2 The application of free translation'''

First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.
For example:

(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。

(2) Cast pearls before swine.
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。

Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs.
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.

'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''

'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.
For example,

For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.

Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。

Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.

'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.'''

What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example,

John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。

The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.

'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:

The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。

'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:

Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.

Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.

Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.

Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.

'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''

Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages.

The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored.

Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)

These imageries should be translated freely.
For example:

(1) Teach fish to swim.
Free translation: 班门弄斧。

(2) Beat the dog before the lion.
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。

(3) One must howl with the wolves.
Free translation: 入乡随俗。

(4) Love me, love my dog.
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。

(5) Put the cart before the horse.
Free translation: 本末倒置。
5 The relationship of
These imageries can be translated literally.

For example:

(1) The style is the man.
Literal translation: 文如其人。

(2) To be on thin ice.
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。

(3) Hasty makes waste.
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。

(4) Fish in troubled water.
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。

(5) Business is business.
Literal translation: 公事公办。

(6) Honey sweet words.
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。

(7) A gentleman’s agreement.
Literal translation: 君子协定。

'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''

Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world.

In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:

(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。

(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。

(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。

(4) A new broom sweeps clean.
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。

(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。

(6) The pot calls the kettle black.
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.
For example:

(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。

(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。

(3) Out of sight, out of mind.
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。

(4) Like father, like son.
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。

(5) Well begun, half done.
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。

===V. The relation between literal and free translation===
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect.
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.

===VI. Conclusion===
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible.

===References===
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.

[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.

[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108

[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266

[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.

[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Cultural Differences'''=

==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611
==='''Abstract'''===
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.
===Key words===
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods
===题目===
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译
===摘要===
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。
===关键词===
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略
===1. Introduction===
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===2. Features of Idioms===

====2. 1 Vividness====
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 2 Historic Background====
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 3 Stability====
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 4 Semantic Unity====
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====2. 5 Euphony====
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===

====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.

Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)

In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====4. 1 Translation Principles====
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)

The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.

====4. 2 Translation Methods====
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)

For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

===5. Conclusion===
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)

Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)

===6. References ===
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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.

Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.

Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.

Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169

Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.

Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.

Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].

==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==
马娟Ma Juan202020080623
===Abstract===
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.
===Key words===
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies

===题目===
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略

===摘要===
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。
===关键词===
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略

===1.Introduction===
===1.1 Research Background===
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014)

However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08)

As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

===1.2 Research Significance===
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)

That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)

===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)

The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015)

The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)

===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.

====2.1 Historical Culture====
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)

On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)

====2.2 Regional Culture====
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)

For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016)

Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)
====2.3 Custom Culture====
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016)
2.4.Religious Culture
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)
====2.4 Digital Culture====
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).

For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)

====2.5 Social Code====
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014)

Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014)

Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)

===3.The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.1.Lexical Representation====
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.2.Pragmatic Rules====
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)

For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.3.Way of Thinking====
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.4.Historical and Cultural Background====
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）

===4.The Coping Strategies of The Effects===
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)
====4.1.Domestication And Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)
====4.2.Natural Equivalence====
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)
4.2.1.Transliteration
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)

====4.3.Flexible Handling====
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)

For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)

===5.Conclusion===
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)

===References===
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.

Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.

Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.

Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.

Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.

Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.

Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.

Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.

Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.

--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center>
===Abstract===
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.

===Key words===
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies

===题目===
多元系统理论和文化转向

===摘要===
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。

===关键词===
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究

===1. Introduction===
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.

===2. Development of polysystem theory===

====2. 1 Research Background====

=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).

=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).

====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113).

Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93).

By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46).

He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.

① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).

③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).

====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93).

The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).

In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).

For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).

For example:

Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).

Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。

However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.

Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).

Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。

Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。

However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.

The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).

===3. Development of Cultural Turn===
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110).

Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11).

Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110).

The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88).

Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).

At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88).

Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

===4. Judgement===
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.

Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4. 1Advantages====
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).

====4. 2 Disadvantages====
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).

The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).

===5. Conclusion===
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138).

When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.

===6. References===
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.

BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.

Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374.

Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].

William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.

Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197.

Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64.

Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138.

JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67.

Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].

Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94.

Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206.

Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96.

Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95.

Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49.

Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112.

Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.

==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia No.202020080662 英语语言文学==

===Abstract===

Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

===Key Words===

Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills

===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===

===摘要===

翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。

===关键词===

文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧

===Introduction===

The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.

===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===

Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.

2.1 The Historical Background

Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.

First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.

We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓).

As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居).

Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.

2.2 The Social Customs

Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.

“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries.

In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda".

Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations.

In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation.

2.3 The Thinking Mode

“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking.

Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.

Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it.

The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.

===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===

Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.

3.1 Lexical Gap

Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word.

Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.

The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.

3.2 Semantic Conflict

Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.

In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.

In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19)

When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.

3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences

Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)

Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.

Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils".

In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行为上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么像一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)

===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===

The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.

4.1 Focus on the work itself

When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood.

In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.

In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.

4.2 Focus on the reader

In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.

Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.

Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)

4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'.

The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)

In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.

Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.

As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.

===Conclusion===

Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns. No.202020080662
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Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .

Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). 翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题 [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21.

Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). 四种常用的翻译方法 [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.

Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). 从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例 [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.

Cao, Xueqin曹雪芹. (1982). ''红楼梦(上)'' [Dream of the Red Chamber (上). [Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House] 北京:人民文学出版社.

Yang Xian Yi杨宪益. (1978) ''A Dream of Ｒed Mansions''. [Beijing:Foreign Language Press] 北京:外文出版社.

Nida E A．(2001). ''Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating''. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). 翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等 [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.

==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==

=='''Abstract'''==
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.

=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation

The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''摘要'''==
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。

=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译

Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Introduction'''==

Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.

The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time.

There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.

This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.

This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.

Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.

Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.

Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.

=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.

1.1 Definition

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).

1.2 Details About Domestication

There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.

Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159).

Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）

Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)

Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.

He’s always been strong as a mule．

他一向壮得像头牛。

‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).

1.3 Details About Foreignization

Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).

Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).

With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).

1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization

Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20).

For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.

Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations.

For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.

Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==

===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.

2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).

A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.

Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.

2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China

The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).

That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).

Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.

3.1 The Translation Purpose

3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy.

On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used.

So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.

3.2 The Target Reader

In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.

Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.

He is a modern Samson.

(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。

(2)他是一个大力士。

Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).

All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.

3.3 The Text Type

3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable.

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy.

=='''Conclusion'''==

In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.

==''' References'''==

Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.

Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.

Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.

Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.

Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.

Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.

Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.

Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.

Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.

Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.

Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.

Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.

Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.

Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.

[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.

Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center>

===Abstract===
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing.
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014).

===Keywords===
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies

===题目===
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究

===摘要===
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。

===关键词===
文化差异；口译；应对策略

===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.

'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''

Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different.
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context.
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.

In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)

'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''

"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks".

Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）

'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''

Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well.
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."

As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)

===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===

With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.

'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''

Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)

Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack."

When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens".

"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)

'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''

The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.

In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.

The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.

The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.

Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)

===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===

The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.

Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency".

'''III.I. Accuracy'''

Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.

'''III.II. Immediacy'''

Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.

'''III.III. Fluency'''

Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)

Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.

This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）

===IV. Discussion===

In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.

'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''

In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.

Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.

'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''

The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.

As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.

'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''

Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)

After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)

===V. Conclusion===

Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.

This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.

===References===

Liu Yang 刘洋. (2019) 文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对[The Impact of Cultural Differences on English Interpreting and Response].智库时代, Think Tanks Times (17):198-199.

Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.

Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)

Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)

Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.

Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.

Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.

MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).

Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.

Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).

Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.

==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

==Abstract==

As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.

==Key Words==

TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory

==摘要==

中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。

==关键词==

旅游宣传资料翻译文化差异目的论

==I. Introduction==

Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.

TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)

Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.

This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.

==II. Literature Review==

2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)

2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)

TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)

2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials

As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:

Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)

Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)

2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials

Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:

First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well.
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)

Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.

==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==

The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58).

3.1 Differences in Food Culture

Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.

3.2 Differences in Customs

Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively.
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

3.3 Differences in Religions

The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.

==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==

4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.

4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach

According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge.

According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.

4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory

In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored.

In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord.

Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.

Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.

Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.

Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.

4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)

Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.

Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.

The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.

According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.

4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory

Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.

The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.

What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)

==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==

Skopostheory

Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.

5.1 Transliteration with Explanation
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.

Example 1.
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)

Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)

Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。

The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

5.2 Literal Translation

Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:

Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)

5.3 Free Translation
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.

Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce

There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)

Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。

Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.

Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.

The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet.

Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)

The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)

In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)

Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

==VI. Conclusion==

Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.

Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory.

Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.

There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.

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--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Functional Equivalence'''=

==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==

==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong MTI 英语口译 202070080641 ==
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center>

===Abstract===
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.

===Key Words===
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods

===题目===
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究

===摘要===
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法

===I. Introduction===
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)

===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993）

====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)

In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)

Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)

====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.

Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)

====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)

Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.

As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.

At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)

Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.

===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)

Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.

Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.

In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:

=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers.

E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .”
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.

In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.

The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)

=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”

The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.

=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:

“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”

When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.

The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.

It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.

Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.

There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.

An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:

In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.

The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.

For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”

The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.

The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.

Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.

Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

====4.1 Explanatory Translation====
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”

====4.2 Omission in Translation====
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”

====4.3 Re-creation Translation====
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,

====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text.
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

===V. Conclusion===
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.

===References===
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964.
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.]

--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran 202070080643 英语口译==

===Abstract===

Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.

===Key words===
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu

===题目===
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例

===摘要===
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。

===关键词===
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城

===I. Introduction===

This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence.
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of ''Cong Cong'' from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.

===II. Theoretical Framework===

====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his ''Towards a Science of Translating'', Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)

In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', in which he developed the contents of ''Towards a Science of Translation''. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)

In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).

====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====

=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence=====
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===
The earliest study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of ''Cong Cong'' in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan 2017，189).

Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao 2015，104).

Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37).

Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators===

====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

At the beginning of ''Cong Cong'', a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as ''Foreign Literature and Art'', ''The World of English'', and ''Journal of World Chinese Studies''. (Poetry Hall, 2019)

One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?

===V. Case Analysis===

====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?

Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?

Analysis:

In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.

Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights.

Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。

Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.

Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well.

Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了；

Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.

Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.

Analysis:

In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace.
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago.

Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to specific things we see in the real world, rather than imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate.

In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version.

Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''

Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''

Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''

Analysis:

In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly.

Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；'''

Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.
'''

Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''

Analysis:

In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.

Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.

====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''

Ge：'''Haste'''

Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''

Analysis:

In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.

Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way.

Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。

Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.

Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original.

Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''

Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?
'''
Analysis:

In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.

In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.

The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier.

Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''

Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''

Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''

Analysis:

In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation.

Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。

Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.

Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.

Analysis:

In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly?

Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；'''

Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''

Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''

Analysis:

In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence.

Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；'''

Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''

Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''

Analysis:

In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.

===VI. Conclusion===
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style.

In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”.

What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.

To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to.

===VII. References===

* GOLDBLATT,(1955). H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) "The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature". New York: The Columbia University Press.

* Ge Haowen. (2011). ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.

* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. (2016). "On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation". Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. 139-143.

* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).

* Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. (2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.

* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]．现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．

* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10): 104-106.

* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社,

* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.

* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.

* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College 四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.

* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.

* Yang Fan杨帆.(2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An Analysis of English Translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.

* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.

* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04): 60.

* Zhai Zihui翟子惠, Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.

--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 16:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646

=== '''Abstract''' ===

In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.

==='''Key words'''===

semantic translation; communicative translation; application

==='''题目'''===
语义翻译与交际翻译

==='''摘要'''===
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。

==='''关键字'''===
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用

==='''1.Introduction'''===
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).

=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17).

At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).

The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).

The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)

==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .
Liao Qiyi gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):

===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).

===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).

===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.

===='''3.4 Language Style'''====
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.5 Length'''====
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63).

Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).

==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===

Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).

According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62).

The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).

As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).

However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).

The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).

==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===

These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).

Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).

Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98).

In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63).

On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52).

The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32).

===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).
Example 1:

Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.

Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。

It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition.

Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).

In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).

===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).
Example 1:
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.

Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。

“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).

Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).

Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38).

Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).
.

If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).

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--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==

<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center>

===Abstract===
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.

===Key Words===
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例

===摘要===
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。

===关键词===
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论

===Introduction===
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.

===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text.
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).

===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)

The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)

====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)

To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102)

====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)

To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)

===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===

''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)

''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)
=====The Use of Reduplication=====
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.

Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。

The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.

Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。

The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24)

Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.

Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……

The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)

The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)

=====The Use of Adverbs=====
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)

Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.

Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。

Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)

Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.

Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。

Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)

Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.

Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子，勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”

Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)

Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.

Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。

Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)

To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)

=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.

Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。

Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.

Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。

There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)

====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)

Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.

Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！

Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10)

Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.

Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。

Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)

=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.

Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！

Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.

Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。

Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)

The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)

===Conclusion===
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
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Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.

Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95.
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--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 7

2020-12-21T16:38:03Z

Su Lin: /* 2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Translation Studies'''=

==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center>
===Abstract===
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.
===Key Words===
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury
===题目===
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思
===摘要===
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。
===关键词===
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里
===1. Introduction ===
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5).

Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.

The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.

===2. Descriptive translation definition===
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).

Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).

Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence.

There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.

Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).

The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.

===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade.

Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.

===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ).

As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88).

In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars.

The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).

===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87).

Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation.

Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research.

Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013).

As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37).

Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation.

However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).

===3. James Holmes===
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School.

It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.

===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works.

He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms.

On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation.

The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories:

1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible;

2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects;

3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language;

4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible.

Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences.

These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.

===4. Gideon Toury===
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations.

The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.

He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective.

Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others.

Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text.

It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept.

Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials.

Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation.

Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence:

1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system.

2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems.

3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur.

4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.

It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator.

Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies.

Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131)

However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis.

Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice.

Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.

===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures.

While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture.

On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.

===4.2 Translation and postulates===
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators.

A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.

===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original.

An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign.

Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message.

Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.

===5. Conclusion===
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories.

Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies.

In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter.

In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors.

Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research.

It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.

===References===
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.

Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.

刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.

顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.

张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.

张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.

马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004

--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia 英语语言文学==
<center> Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞， 202020080599</center>

===Abstract===
In the context of economic globalization and social development, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on national culture has become a topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain its cultural characteristics to a great extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.

===Key Words===
foreignizing translation; national culture

===题目===
异化翻译与民族文化发展

===摘要===
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。

===关键词===
异化翻译；民族文化

===1. Introduction===
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replaces the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality and transformation of cultural production are concerned, it is likely to cause the development of the cultural homogenization of various ethnic groups, which does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015)

A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in ''The Story of the Stone''. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". This translation is conducive to the understanding of Western readers, for the connotation of “green” in the West is close to that of “red” in China. At the sane time, it will make Western readers know nothing about the real connotations of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With domesticating translation, Western readers may never have chance to know it. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137)

It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an significant role. Therefore, it is very essential to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.

Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circle. However, with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a vital role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.

===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotations of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is the extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding toward foreignizing translation.

====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====
The "word-for-word" translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome may be considered as one kind of foreignizing translation. And then the concept of "literal translation" appeared. It also influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32)

In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius had a rich view of literal translation. Tan Zaixi concluded it as : (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43)

During the Renaissance period, the German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73)

In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115)

Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy for the translators is to follow the original author's meaning: If possible, the translators should follow the words closely, and finally reproduce the original character as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) And Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)

From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.

Friedrich Schleiermacher puts forward two different translation strategies in his speech ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocates that the first translation strategy is foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respect language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228)

Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasizes the directness of language and intends to subvert the bourgeois view of instrumental language. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy and retain the language form of the original text, that is, different ways of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. (Benjamin 1999, 272)

Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centering on "the transmission of meaning" that has dominated the Western translation world for a long time. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original works and the language and cultural differences in the original works. In order to achieve his goal, he advocates implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, which enriches language itself by introducing "others". (Berman 1984, 23)

Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, it was not until 1995 that the terminology of "foreignizing translation" was put forword in Lawrence Venuti's book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized as follows: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes accepting“the other”as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)

====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented school(文派) and meaning-oriented school(质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategies of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)

Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as Zhi Qian, a Buddhist scripture translator in the Han Dynasty, whose translation focuses on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the meaning-oriented translators, puts forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Translation"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)

In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气).(Lu Xun 2005, 365)

The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59)

With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)

===3.Discussion===
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but they generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that can preserve the characteristics of the source language and help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.(Zhang Jinhua, 2009)

====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural exchange. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

=====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development=====
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges between countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation plays a role in this process.(Liu Miqing 2005, 22)

The change of language is firstly reflected on the lexical level. Some words do not originally exist in the target language, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs are gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

For example: The word "honeymoon" has no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning could not be understood by Chinese before, for at that time the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. However, Lin Shu boldly uses foreignizing translation and translated it as "蜜月". The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月", which undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese language. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", and "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

Once accepted by the society, these foreign words are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend and cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 373)

The necessity of foreignizing translation is not only limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes. And these foreignizing syntaxes of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29)

The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example,the frequency and scope of passive voice have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was first used in ancient Chinese, but it is rare and generally used to express unfortune or unpleasant experiences. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant feelings. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some words and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this idea, they gave great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

=====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges=====
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which has contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than on their extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to a great extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges.(Li Miqing 2005, 43)

Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and expressions. He once said: "Why can't (translation) completely be sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation must not only import new content, but also import the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can have a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language.

Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. As for proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy. For example, some translators may translate "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢,疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices, which is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. However, the cultural connotation of "pudding" for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of "pudding" in the translation.

Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works have a positive influence. This is mainly due to the low qualitiy of the translated text and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality.

=====3.2.1. Readability of Translation=====
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map,and you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called the translation "hard translation". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of which, of course, strives to be easy to understand, while the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith.

This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases.

In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” is translated as “露华浓” and “Lamer” is translated as”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods.

Mastering foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read in some translations. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly think of its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)

For readers in the target country, foreignizing translation of popular works form the source language country is more likely to be accepted. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture.Therefore, when Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture begun to occupy an position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under this background, Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. From this perspective, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 138)

When choosing a work of the source language, the translators should consider the readers’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on different expectations of different readers.

However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and make innovations on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is innovative for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)

====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture should be viewed form two perspectives: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world. But it may also cause difficulties in spreading the source language culture; for the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture.But foreignizing translation may also cause a lack of national self-confidence.

=====3.3.1. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Source Culture=====
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote the spread of national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of the Czech Republic, the Czech translator John Bowring used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. At the same time, he brought the Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East. But it is far inferior to the former. Some scholars think it is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the situation is changing for China’s international influence is gradually increasing. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

In fact, China, with its long history, has had an influence that cannot be ignored by the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has influenced the development of civilization in the world. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 106).

In order to make the broad Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, "when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language by copying Chinese syntax." (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257).

The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of their own translations. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literatury works that can match the names popular in English-speaking countries. Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables the world to understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)

The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation. (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 107)

=====3.3.2. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on the Target Culture=====
Foreignizing translation can promote the development of national culture in the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. All kinds of culture need to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect itself. For example, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system by imitating that of the Western culture. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was more open in literary. It formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre, are full of colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9).

During the Renaissance, humanist writers and scholars express their cultural opinions by reviving ancient Greek and Roman culture. It is the reference and absorption of different cultures that made the Renaissance culture fruitful. And foreignization translation is just a translation strategy that can make cultural reference work better.(Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

Both Chinese and foreign history prove that culture can develop if it can recognize and respect culural differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation is, the stronger its ability to grow, this theorem is also true.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27) In short, a culture accept the foreignization of other cultures can dvelop better. On the contrary, a self-proclaimed culture will stubbornly restrain foreignization.

However, foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target countries. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategy, which invisibly formed cultural colonization towards the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence on the local culture of the target country. (Wang Kefei 1997, 45)

===4. Conclusion===
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages on the levels of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood to achieve self-enrichment. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the cultural exchanges between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.

In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when used. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.

In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has different influences on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. However, for "weaker cultures", foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, resulting in a lack of self-confidence in local culture.

In conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, some restrictions need to be followed in the application of foreignizing translation. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should also be viewed dialectically from different perspectives.

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--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606==

===Abstract===

This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.

===Key Words===
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism

===题目===

赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析

===摘要===

本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。

===关键词===
后殖民；东方主义；批评

====Introduction====
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.
Edward said, a scholar from Bamei. In 1978, he published Orientalism, his masterpiece of postcolonial criticism. Orientalism is not a study of the East itself, but an Orientalism thought existing in the minds of the West. By criticizing Orientalists and deconstructing cultural hegemony, it tries to transcend the basic stand of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural diversity, thus forming a new relationship of dialogue, mutual penetration and symbiosis between the East and the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism.
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend of thought, postcolonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology and philosophy. It is widely involved in cultural imperialism, colonial discourse and Western representation of eastern culture, reflecting on the historical facts of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity and the relationship among race, class and gender. The core idea of said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the power discourse mechanism implied in Orientalism, to reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, to explore the strategies for disintegrating cultural hegemony, to criticize the colonial discourse and cultural colonialism in Orientalism, cultural imperialism and cultural hegemonism, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thoughts since colonialism in the post colonial era 。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.
The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: Criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, reappearance of the oppressed historical memory of the colony, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colony, discussion of the unique identity and situation of women in the third world, attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of collusion between ideological products and colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and text theory, as well as his practice of post colonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial criticism methodology system.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Orientalism====
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward.
In Orientalism, a classic work of postcolonial criticism, said established his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on the basis of extensive text interpretation. Orientalism is not only a way of power operation, but also a way of power operation. Said takes the colonial discourse as the research object, that is, from the perspective of how the West views the East, criticizes the Orientalism aesthetics embodied in the western literary works, including the Western superiority, civilization and progress, while the Oriental ignorance, barbarism and backwardness.--User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence.
According to said, Orientalism exists in three areas of discussion: academia, the ontological understanding of the binary opposition between the East and the west, and the colonial process. Said uses Lacan's psychoanalysis method to study western culture and points out that Orientalism is the embodiment of psychological experience of self and other in western culture. The composition of any person's self-image is based on the coexistence of identity and other. Because of this religious bias, many Oriental Scholars, when one strips away the machine of footnotes and sources, are merely guessing, asserting and groundless judgments, without concrete evidence. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）
Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.
Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves.
The most easily accepted meaning is as an academic research discipline. In fact, the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes or studies the East, whether anthropologist, sociologist, historian or linguist, is an Orientalist, whether he or she is facing specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientalists is that the former writes about the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the role is passive acceptance; for the former, it is the power of observation and research. In short, it is the author and the object of writing. Therefore, in the Orientalist's Orientalism Research, the East is shown as a rigid, stagnant and unchanging image symbol, which needs others to examine and even need others to provide their own knowledge. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized".
Orientalists insist that the west can understand and describe the eastern world not because of its own efforts, but because the West has an effective operating mechanism. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of Orientalists, the East is unable to express itself. It is an absent and silent "other". It is only controlled and expressed by the "certain dominant framework" of the West. The image of the East has never changed, that is, it can never define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is a man-made system of theory and practice". Said believes that the East presented in various Western works is not the true representation of the East as a historical existence, but a cultural concept and discourse practice of Westerners. Therefore, the East is not the East, but the East is "orientalized".--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.
Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient.
Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.
Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.
It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.
The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.
In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "
Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.
The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====

In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture.
In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.
In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.
After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.
Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them.
In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.
While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture.
It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society.
If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.
Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.
Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.
In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive.
Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act.
He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))
Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position.
First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.
The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest.
Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.
Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.
Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Conclusion====
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 15:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
[1]王宁,薛晓源.全球化与后殖民批评[M].中央编译出版社, 1998.

[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.

[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.

[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.

[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).

[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.

[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.

[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。

[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。

[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。

[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。

[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。

[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。

[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。

== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing MTI 英语笔译==

<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center>

===Abstract===

Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics.

Then the author and translator of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.

===Key words===

Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history

===题目===

解释学视角下 ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 译本的对比研究

===摘要===

解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。

笔者随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。

===关键词===

解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史

===Introduction===

''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)

Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

===1.Literature Review===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics'
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）

====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====

Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics,
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）

The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. (Zhu Jianping 2006, 80)

With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 126)

Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)

====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====

Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）

As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons.（Liu Xiaohui 2010, 127)

The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====

As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. （Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）

Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）

Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===

This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)

====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====

Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)

Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 30）

Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

====2.2. Lin Shu====

Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）

At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission when they translated this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. （Chen Hongwei 2004, 33）

Translator Lin Shu’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 99）

But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)

====2.3. Huang Jizhong====

Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. （Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 86）

His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)

===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===

The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）

====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====

The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)

=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====

Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）

1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)

林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)

黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）

This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 75）

The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 82)

According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 64)

Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)

=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====

Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72)

2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". (Zhu Jianping 2006, 81)

Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 53)

It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250)

3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)

林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)

黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）

When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 34)

Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. (Lin Yupeng 2001, 35)

These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 36)

During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====

4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)

林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)

黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）

In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 40)

However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )

5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)

林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)

黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）

This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 33)

This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)

In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 32)

In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)

====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====

British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，they must bring the characteristics of their own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translators' language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)

=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====

A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating these religious contents, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)

林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)

黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）

In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)

Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 84)

The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)

Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73)

=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====

Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：

7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）

林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）

黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxiety at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)

From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of being understood. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）

8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）

林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)

黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）

A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. (Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)

Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）

Literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)

Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)

===Conclusion===

In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)

===References===

*Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.

*Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

*Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.

*Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.

*Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). 译者主体性的语言哲学反思 [A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125.

*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.

*Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). 读者的主体性与文本的主体性 [ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.

*Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). 翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观 [Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-84.

*Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). 翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释 [Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.

*Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.
--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 09:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==

<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center>

===Abstract===
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Key words===
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies

===题目===
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究

===摘要===
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略

===Chapter1 Introduction===

Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention.

That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.

This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings.

===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===

====2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation====

In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.

When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)

In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.

====2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation====

In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note.

Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)

Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)

Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===

====3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory====

The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.

Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.

In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)

Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)

====3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation====

Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators.

To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation.

In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.

===Chapter4 Text Analysis===

This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.

====4.1 Lexical Equivalence====

(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband.

Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better.

In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.

(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”.

In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.

(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother.

So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.

(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.

====4.2 Syntactic Equivalence====

(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.

(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.

(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”.

When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.

(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.

====4.3 Textual Equivalence====

(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.

Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level.

In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.

(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely.

However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.

(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.

Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too.

Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.

(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.

====4.4 Stylistic Equivalence====

(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.

There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence.

(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.

(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）

-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)

-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)

In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism.

===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===

Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.

====5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment====

In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.

====5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism====

Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.

i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation====

The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.

i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation====

It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.

i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

====5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism====

A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.

i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）

===Chapter6 Conclusion===

Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory.

It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved.

In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.

This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time.

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*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.

*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.

*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.

*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.

*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.

*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.

--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan MTI 英语笔译==

===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===

<center> Lou Cancan 202070080599. </center>

===Abstract===
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.
===Key words===
translation criteria; Dong Qiusi; recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history

===题目===
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新

===摘要===
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。

===关键词===
翻译标准；董秋思；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史

===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===

Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) in 1926 and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争)， editing the monthly ''Bloody Road''. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly'' International''. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)

Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901)

The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (Zhuang Zhixiang 2017, 901-902)

===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===

'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''

In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (Wang Qinghuha 2016, 18)

There is no doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 32-33)

To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (Wang Qinghua 2016, 18-19)

In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria in China and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 20-21)

'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''

Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)

The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83)

Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)

As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)

Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 41)

For example, Lin Shu, a translator who did not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his view, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (Wang Qinhua 2016, 41-43)

In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (Wang Qinhua 2016, 45)

It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)

'''2.3 Translation is Science'''

In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)

Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of the 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 227)

===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===

Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)

In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)

What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)

However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 77)

First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China; (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers; (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages; (4) conduct translation criticism; (5) sum up experiences of translating; and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan S.1999, 42)

'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''

"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, in order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)

Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (Zhang Qian 2012, 5)

Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, ''China Daily'' published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (Sun Zhili 1996，193)

In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)

He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)

Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 81)

'''3.2 Translation Theory'''

Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38)

Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (Zhang Qian 2012, 38-39)

Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88)

In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 88-89)

'''3.3 Translation History'''

Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 90)

Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91)

The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which are of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (Wang Qinghua 2016, 91-93)

===4. conclusion===

From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

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Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.

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Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.

Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.

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Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

='''Translation Criticism'''=

==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng MTI英语笔译 202070080583==

===Abstract===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.

===Key words===

translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication

===题目===

论翻译批评—基于回译

===摘要===

无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。

===关键词===

翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际

===1. Introduction of translation criticism===

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this is far from enough.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78)

Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, its main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.

According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context.

Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts relating to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.

===2. Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===

There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.

Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C.

We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.(He Xianbin 2002,46)

What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there are still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.

===3. Analysis of texts relating to back translation===

As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works relating to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.

====3.1 Back translation in words and expressions====

Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt).(He Xianbin 2002,45)

Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)

====3.2 Back translation in texts====

Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works relating to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these works are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).

If we translate these kinds of works back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:

(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)

Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is "place", while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extended the meaning of "place" and translated it into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)

Target Text: "......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。"(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)

This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine.(trans by Sougou online translation)

Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)

Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:

我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”

By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓".(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:

(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)

Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。

This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and uses online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:

1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)

2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou online translation)

By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

===4. Application of back translation===

Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.

At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated.

Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.(Tan Zaixi 2018,2)

Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.

Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.

===5. Conclusion===

As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method.

There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33)

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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.

Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．

Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.

Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.

Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin 202020080640 比较文学和跨文化研究==

=== Abstract ===
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.
===Keywords ===
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''
===摘要===
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。

===关键词===
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》
===I.Introduction===
When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.

Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437)

From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation.

“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)

Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.

It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.

===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."(Schleiermacher,1992:149)

These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor.
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.

=====2.1.1Transliteration=====
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).

Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.

Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.

Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)

好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）

Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)

别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）

If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)

赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）

By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)

我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）

For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)

因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）

All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.

=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====

Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).

Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.
Let's look at the following examples.

Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）

Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）

Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）

Zhu’s version:

杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）

Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.

Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）

Zhu’s version:

葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）

In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.

Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）

In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.

=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====

“Due to the complicated background involved in some cultural connotations, translators can take corresponding compensation methods, such as literal annotation, to make readers understand 'The Shakespeare’s plays' better.”（Yan Xiaojiang,2019:40）

A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:

You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)

那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.(2001:96)

Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.

Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.

Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）

Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。

Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)

波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）

Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。

Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun.

What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.

Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shenghao,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.

Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）

Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）

Shylock:I have a daughter;
Would any of the stock of Barbbas
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）

Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）

Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）

Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。
Zhu’s version:

鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）

From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them.

In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.

Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）

Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。

Zhu’s version:

萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）

Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)

Liang’s version:

夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）

Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。

Zhu’s version:

夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）

In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.

====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.（Yan Xiaojiang,2010:41)

When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3)

当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）

Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)

或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）

Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)

那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）

Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)

少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）

I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)

我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）

Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)

如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）

I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)

我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）

A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.

He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.
(Act 1, Scene 3)

他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）

For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)

因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）

Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)

借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）

And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)

随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）

The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.

In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;
(Act 1, Scene 1)

在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）

Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)

你的父亲一向是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）

This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)

这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。（2001:46）

I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)

我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）

If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)

如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）

The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.

As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.

In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. For some foreign unique cultural phenomenon, the translator can not find the corresponding words to describe in Chinese. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, some translators may adopt domestication to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.

====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====

“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.

Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.（Xao Yixin,2013:27)

Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.(Yang Xi,2009:09)

Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.(Yan Xiaojiang,2011:99)

====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====

During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.(Li Zonggang,2017:104)

Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ).

Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.(Lu Xun,1981,157)

Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believed that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. （Li Zonggang,2017:105)

Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocated “reading first-rate Books, translating first-class books” , He believed that only in masterpieces people can get profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.（Yang Yuling,2006:91)

===III.Conclusion===

Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.

On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original.

On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.

===IV.References===

[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.

[2] Schleiermacher, F. On the different methods of translating(1813) [ C] 11 Andre Lefevere. Translation/History/cul-ture. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 141 - 166.

[3]Zhu Anbo朱安博.(2009).”归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变” [Domestication and Foreignization: The centennial Evolution of Chinese Translation Studies] “北京科学出版社”[Beijing Science Press].

[4]Ke Fei柯飞.(1988).“梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚”. [Liang Shiqiu's recollection of translating Shakespeare].”外语教学与研究”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ](01),46-51.

[5]Liang Shiqiu梁实秋.(2001).”莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare][A][M].”北京中国广播电视出版社”.[Beijing China Radio and Television Press].

[6]Zhu Shenghao朱生豪.(1978). “莎士比亚全集”.[The complete works of Shakespeare].”北京人民文学出版社”.[Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House].

[7]Yang xunwen杨迅文.(2002c).”梁实秋文集(5)”.[ liang Shiqiu’s anthology,05].”厦门:鹭江出版社”.[Xiamen: Lujiang Press].

[8]Liu Junping刘军平. (2009)”西方翻译理论通史[M]”.[A general history of Western translation theory,M].”武汉：武汉大学出版社”.[Wuhan: Wuhan University Press],445.

[9]Yan Xiaojiang严晓江.(2010).”论梁实秋的译莎策略[J]”.[On Liang Shiqiu's Translation strategies].”长春大学学报”.[Journal of Changchun University],20(03):39-42.

[10]Xiao Yixin肖忆鑫.(2013).”梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究”.[Liang Shiqiu's View of the doctrine of the mean in Translation].”赣南师范学院”.[Gannan Normal University],MA thesis.

[11]Yang Xi杨曦.(2010).”梁实秋翻译思想研究”.[Studies of Liang Shiqiu’s Translation Thoughts].”浙江财经学院”.[Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics],MA thesis.

[12]Xu Ling许玲.(2007).”梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译”.[Liang Shiqiu's New Humanism thought and Translation of Shakespeare's plays].”安徽师范大学”.[Anhui Normal University],MA thesis.

[13]Li Zonggang李宗刚.(2017).”如何辩证地看待鲁迅与其他文人的骂战[J]”.[How to dialectically treat the debate between Lu Xun and other literati?].”中国文学批评”.[Chinese literary Criticism],(02):104-111.

[14]Yang Yuling杨玉玲.(2006).”鲁迅梁实秋翻译论战综述[J]”.[A summary of Lu Xun liang Shiqiu's translation controversy].”中共福建省委党校学报”.[Journal of CPC Fujian Provincial Party School],(11):88-91.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==

==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==

===Abstract===
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.

===Keywords===
free translation, literal translation, application.

===摘要===
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。

===关键词===
直译，意译，应用。

===I. Introduction===
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.

The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.

===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.

"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.

===III. Definition of Two Translation===
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''

Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)

Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.

You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.

For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.

'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)

In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.

For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively.
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.

===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''

Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:

(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。

(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。

For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language.
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.
For example:

(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。

(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。

In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning.
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.

'''4.2 The application of free translation'''

First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.
For example:

(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。

(2) Cast pearls before swine.
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。

Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs.
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.

'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''

'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.
For example,

For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.

Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。

Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.

'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.'''

What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example,

John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。

The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.

'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:

The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。

'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:

Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.

Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.

Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.

Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.

'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''

Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages.

The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored.

Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)

These imageries should be translated freely.
For example:

(1) Teach fish to swim.
Free translation: 班门弄斧。

(2) Beat the dog before the lion.
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。

(3) One must howl with the wolves.
Free translation: 入乡随俗。

(4) Love me, love my dog.
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。

(5) Put the cart before the horse.
Free translation: 本末倒置。
5 The relationship of
These imageries can be translated literally.

For example:

(1) The style is the man.
Literal translation: 文如其人。

(2) To be on thin ice.
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。

(3) Hasty makes waste.
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。

(4) Fish in troubled water.
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。

(5) Business is business.
Literal translation: 公事公办。

(6) Honey sweet words.
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。

(7) A gentleman’s agreement.
Literal translation: 君子协定。

'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''

Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world.

In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:

(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。

(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。

(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。

(4) A new broom sweeps clean.
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。

(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。

(6) The pot calls the kettle black.
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.
For example:

(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。

(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。

(3) Out of sight, out of mind.
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。

(4) Like father, like son.
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。

(5) Well begun, half done.
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。

===V. The relation between literal and free translation===
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect.
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.

===VI. Conclusion===
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible.

===References===
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.

[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.

[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108

[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266

[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.

[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Cultural Differences'''=

==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==
李凌月Li Lingyue202020080611
==='''Abstract'''===
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.
===Key words===
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods
===题目===
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译
===摘要===
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。
===关键词===
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略
===1. Introduction===
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===2. Features of Idioms===

====2. 1 Vividness====
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 2 Historic Background====
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 3 Stability====
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====2. 4 Semantic Unity====
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====2. 5 Euphony====
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===

====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.

Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)

In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)

====4. 1 Translation Principles====
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)

The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)

=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.

====4. 2 Translation Methods====
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation.(Hu Gangliang, 2019)

For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)
=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

===5. Conclusion===
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)

Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)

===6. References ===
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3

Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.

Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.

Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.

Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169

Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.

Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.

Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].

==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英美文学==
马娟Ma Juan202020080623
===Abstract===
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.
===Key words===
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies

===题目===
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略

===摘要===
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。
===关键词===
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略

===1.Introduction===
===1.1 Research Background===
(给以标上了编号，以下都编上了)
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014)

However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, they are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic that the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transmission of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08)

As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community backgrounds, geographical conditions and cultural settings. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading. Additionally, from the previous practices of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affect the interpretation, an information transfer activity a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

===1.2 Research Significance===
As many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015)

That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; domestication and foreignization, natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonyms in English and some flexible handlings. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this chapter are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)

===1.3 The Structure of The Chapter===
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)

The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)

The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015)

The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)

===2.The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code.

====2.1 Historical Culture====
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed an agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated，the culture of a community can influence people’s way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015)

On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus form an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance and their direct expression of their emotions. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expressions because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different characters reflect clearly in their language expressions.(Ding Yin,2015)

====2.2 Regional Culture====
China is located in the east of the earth while the western countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)

For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016)

Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)
====2.3 Custom Culture====
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016)
2.4.Religious Culture
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)
====2.4 Digital Culture====
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic usages of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” and so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation, otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people are also different(Li Jing,2014).

For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital characters that represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)

====2.5 Social Code====
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014)

Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014)

Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)

===3.The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.1.Lexical Representation====
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.2.Pragmatic Rules====
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)

For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17)
====3.3.Way of Thinking====
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)
====3.4.Historical and Cultural Background====
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）

===4.The Coping Strategies of The Effects===
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)
====4.1.Domestication And Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)
====4.2.Natural Equivalence====
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)
4.2.1.Transliteration
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)

====4.3.Flexible Handling====
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015)

For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)

Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)

===5.Conclusion===
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)

===References===
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.

Zhang Wen.张文.(1998). 论口译面对的文化差异问题.On the problem of cultural differences in interpreting.北京第二外国语学院学报, Journal of Beijing Second Foreign Language Institute,(03):3-5.

Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.

Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.

Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),(09):143-144.

Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.

Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.

Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.

Wang Yaqin.王雅琴.(2014). 论文化差异对英汉习语口译的影响及其策略[D].On the influence of cultural differences on English-Chinese idiomatic interpreting and its strategies.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.

Shi Huiying.施慧英.(2004).跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策,The main causes and countermeasures of intercultural communication barriers.宁波服装职业技术学院学报,Journal of Ningbo Institute of Fashion Technology,(01):59-62.

--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center>
===Abstract===
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.

===Key words===
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies

===题目===
多元系统理论和文化转向

===摘要===
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。

===关键词===
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究

===1. Introduction===
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.

===2. Development of polysystem theory===

====2. 1 Research Background====

=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II, where almost no native cultures and literary works exists. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).

=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).

====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of rigid rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113).

Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a better research idea for cultural studies. The International Association of comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93).

By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely changed the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

Owing to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, Zohar generalized polysystem theory as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Second, polysystem theory refers that, in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus a dynamic translation study comes to being(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Third, Zohar classifies the levels in the Polysystem system. He locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and distributes them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46).

He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.

① When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

② When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).

③ When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which are parts of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman established new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).

====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in ''The Translator's Invisibility''. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93).

The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).

In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).

For example, before the May Fourth Movement in China, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).

For example:

Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).

Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。

However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the polysystem of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at that time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

If strictly obey the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu will adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy will accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.

Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).

Liang’s version:天啊，是可怕的紧。

Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘，这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。

However, the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of domestication.

The above application enlightens us that, cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies, not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because the translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).

===3. Development of Cultural Turn===
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110).

Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11).

Bassnett also introduces a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She compares culture to the human body and language to the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110).

The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of discussing translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88).

Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original text to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).

At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88).

Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to sustain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

Later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful. It stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of great works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles but to convey conducive information. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to benefit Chinese traditional culture from western culture. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to eradicate the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that the Chinese language form should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

===4. Judgement===
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.

Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, they both have advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 15:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4. 1Advantages====
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic school pays much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in an isolated environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can comprehend the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. It can also be used to guide on how to better promote culture through translation(Zhao Bo 2017,112).

====4. 2 Disadvantages====
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, which means the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations. Besides, the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because of the consistency with the new methods of target texts and their possible innovative role in target literature. (Wu Ji 2018,205).

The attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is completely abandoned. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's attention is completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations. Because although the linguistic school focuses on the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of theories to scientifically study translation(Wu Ji 2018,206).

===5. Conclusion===
Taken the above analysis together, we can come to the conclusion that polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on present translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138).

When the earth is like a "village", cultural exchange is getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also should think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.

===6. References===
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.

BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.

Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374.

Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].

William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.

Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197.

Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64.

Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138.

JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67.

Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].

Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94.

Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206.

Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96.

Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95.

Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49.

Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112.

Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.

==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia No.202020080662 英语语言文学==

===Abstract===

Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we will analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

===Key Words===

Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills

===题目：文化差异对翻译方法的影响===

===摘要===

翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。

===关键词===

文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧

===Introduction===

The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.

===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===

Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.

2.1 The Historical Background

Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source language and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.

First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.

We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throwing pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓).

As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居).

Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate (it)--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.

2.2 The Social Customs

Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviors that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.

“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . However, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries.

In addition to dogs, we can also see different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. While in Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda".

Some idioms about cats are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations.

In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. But in English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In ''Treasure Island'', when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation.

2.3 The Thinking Mode

“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking.

Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describing and explaining things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.

Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it.

The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.

===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===

Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of cultures. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.

3.1 Lexical Gap

Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word.

Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.

The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.

3.2 Semantic Conflict

Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.

In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between the form and meaning of words. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.

In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19)

When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is "acquire a knowledge of English"/"has a knowledge of English". Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.

3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences

Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)

Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" do not use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.

Free translation is different from literal translation. Free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳" can be translated into "A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐" can be translated into"A watched pot never boils".

In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行为上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么像一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)

===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===

The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.

4.1 Focus on the work itself

When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poems is usually expressed by the mood.

In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(Cao Xueqin 1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The word "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who are familiar with ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.

In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.

4.2 Focus on the reader

In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’understanding.

Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategies that the translator adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.

Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar to the readers at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)

4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'.

The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.(Nida 2001, 88)

In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.

Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols which also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.

As in Jin Changxu's "Spring Complaint": "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who left home and went to the battlefield . As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.

===Conclusion===

Cultural difference in translation is a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their owns. No.202020080662
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==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==

=='''Abstract'''==
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.

=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation

The title "abstract" and "Key words" don't need to be bold.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''摘要'''==
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。

=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译

Here the problem is similar,and you can have a look at the requirements about the format on the website.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Introduction'''==

Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.

The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time.

There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.

This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.

This chapter mainly consists of three parts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.

Part I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.

Part 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.

Part 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.

=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.

1.1 Definition

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).

1.2 Details About Domestication

There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.

Every paragraph should be followed by quotations.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159).

Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''A Dream In Red Mansions''.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）

Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)

Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.

He’s always been strong as a mule．

他一向壮得像头牛。

‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).

1.3 Details About Foreignization

Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).

Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).

With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).

1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization

Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20).

For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.

Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations.

For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.

Maybe it would be better to have more details about the limitations in foreignizating translation in the last paragraph.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==

===Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.

2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translator must be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).

A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.

Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.

2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China

The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).

That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).

Maybe we can concludes the results when we make this comparision ahout disputes over domestication and foreignization betweeen China and the west and tell why we need to make this conparison.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==

===Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization===--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.

3.1 The Translation Purpose

3.1 The Purpose of The Translation--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy.

On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used.

So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.

3.2 The Target Reader

In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.

Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.

He is a modern Samson.

(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。

(2)他是一个大力士。

Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).

All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.

3.3 The Text Type

3.3 The Type of The Text--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable.

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).In this paragraph, maybe it would be better to have a more detailed conclusion or a deeper explanation of the strategy we can choose to translate different texts.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy.

=='''Conclusion'''==

In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.

==''' References'''==

Chen Fu. (2004). ''Domestication and Foreignization''. Zhejiang University.

Christiane Nord(1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functional Theories Explained''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

Jingjing Cui. (2018). ''A Study on the Relativity of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Date Comparison''. Dezhou University (02):352-360.

Hermans. (1999). ''Translation in System'' . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Neubert, Albrecht. &M Shreve, Gregory. (1992). ''Translation Text''. Ohio: Kent State University Press.

Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language, Culture and Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translation as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shuttleworth, M.＆M. Cowie.(2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. London and New York: Routledge.

Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

Cao Xueqin ＆ Gao E 曹雪芹＆高鹗.(2005). ''红楼梦''[''Hong Lou Meng'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House上海: 上海文艺出版社.

Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(1992).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[Cultural factors in translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. Foreign Language 外国语 (02):12-18.

Hou Yanan 侯雅楠. (2004).翻译的归化和异化研究及应用[Research and Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation].Dalian:Liaoning Normal University大连:辽宁师范大学.

Ke Ping 柯平. (1993). 释义, 归化和回译-三谈变通和补偿手段[Interpretation,Domestication and Retranslation - Three Means of Adaptation and Compensation]. Chinese Translation中国翻译,(01),23-25.

Liu Yingkai 刘英凯. (1987).归化-翻译的岐路[Domestication - Translation Divergence].Modern Foreign Language 现代外语 (2):15-17.

Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋(编).(1984).''翻译论集''[''Translation Collections'']. Beijing:The Commercial Press北京:商务印书馆.

Qin Hongwu ＆ Li Haiqing 秦洪武,李海青 .(1997).论归化的可行性[On the Feasibility of Domestication]. Foreign Language and Translation 外语与翻译,(02),16-18.

Sun Li 孙丽（2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.

Wang Jing王静. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.

Xu Jun许钧. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.

Xun Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

Yan zhiqian严智千. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.

[24] Zhou Lu周蕗 (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.

Zhou Min周敏. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The format our teacher gives for the title of this part is "references". The sequence number is not needed and all the references should have two versions: Chinese version and its English version.--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 09:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译==
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong MTI 英语口译 202070080644 </center>

===Abstract===
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing.
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation. （Jiang Yi 2014).

===Keywords===
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies

===题目===
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究

===摘要===
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（Jiang Yi 姜怡 2014)这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。

===关键词===
文化差异；口译；应对策略

===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.

'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''

Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different.
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context.
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.

In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. " (Fan Xiongjie 2014)

'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''

"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （Fan Xiongjie 2014)
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks".

Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.（MALINI MURALI 2020）

'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''

Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well.
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they would usually say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode "Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."

As a country of ceremonies, China takes modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to say, "请多提宝贵意见。" Under this circumstance, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer your comments."(Hong Xiaoli 2020)

===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===

With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.

'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''

Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily related to military affairs and diplomacy, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" ,which is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. It is foreign matters ,especially the related interests between the two countries that are involved in foreign affairs instead of domestic affairs. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of language behavior but more a kind of cultural behavior. (Hong Xiaoli 2020)

Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack."

When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens".

"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China. (Chen Yongzhi, 2019)

'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''

The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.

In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.

The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.

The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and are inevitably reflected in language.

Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud 2013,34)

===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===

The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.

Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency".

'''III.I. Accuracy'''

Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.

'''III.II. Immediacy'''

Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.

'''III.III. Fluency'''

Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (Yang Xiufang, 2014)

Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.

This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （Chen Yongzhi, 2019.）

===IV. Discussion===

In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.

'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''

In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.

Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.

'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''

The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a lack of knowledge about the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperative negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used in the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the proverbs or special vocabulary is frequently used in this process , so without grasping the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.

As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.

'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''

Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' (Sun Minghui 2019, 167)

After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability.((Simona Simon 2015, 197)

===V. Conclusion===

Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.

This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.

===References===

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Hong Xiaoli 洪小丽.(2020) 以“联络口译”为抓手的新时代口译教学探究——评《联络口译》[Exploring the Teaching of Interpretation in the New Era with "Liaison Interpreting" as the Handle--Review of "Liaison Interpreting].当代教育科学,Contemporary Educational Science (09):97.

Jiang Yi 姜怡.(2014)浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[How to bridge the differences between Chinese and English cultures in interpretation].海外英语 Overseas English 2014(13)

Fan Xiongjie 范雄杰.(2014)浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[An analysis of the impact of cultural differences on translation].校园英语 Campus English (26)

Yang Xiufang 杨秀芳.(2014) 外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[Responses to the problem of cultural differences in foreign interpretation].湖北函授大学学报,Journal of Hubei Correspondence University 27(14):141-142.

Chen Yongzhi 陈永智.(2019) 浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[Cultural Differences in the Interpretation Process and Strategies for Coping].国际公关,International PR (09):279.

Sun Minghui 孙明慧.(2019) 口译中的文化障碍问题研究[A Study of Cultural Barriers in Interpretation].产业与科技论坛,Industry and Technology Forum 18(20):166-167.

MALINI MURALI. Interpreting the Other: Intellectual History and Cultural Difference[J]. The Journal of Indian and Asian Studies,2020,01(02).

Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.

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==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

==Abstract==

As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics (Wu Feng 2008, 319). Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.

==Key Words==

TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory

==摘要==

中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。

==关键词==

旅游宣传资料翻译文化差异目的论

==I. Introduction==

Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.

TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu Feng 2008, 319)

Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.

This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.

==II. Literature Review==

2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)

2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding Dagang 2008,14)

TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 3)

2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials

As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, and reports etc.. They are equipped with features as follows:

Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture conventions, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding Dagang 2008,1)

Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding Dagang 2008, 16)

2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials

Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:

First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well.
Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu Feng 2008,319)

Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.

==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==

The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu Jianping 2000, 58).

3.1 Differences in Food Culture

Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish（Jin Huikang 2005， 218）. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.

3.2 Differences in Customs

Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively.
In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

3.3 Differences in Religions

The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world.

==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==

4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.

4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach

According to Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge.

According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber 1983, 12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.

4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory

In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul 2005, 37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored.

In Nord’s (Nord 2005, 10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord.

Katharina Reiss (Reiss 2004, 32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.

Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer 2000, 228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.

Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari 2001, 35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord 2005, 16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.

Christiane Nord (Nord 2001, 197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord 2001, 125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.

4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu Feng 2008, 28)

Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.

Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.

The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.

According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.

4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory

Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng Jinneng 2008, 30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.

The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.

What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 5)

==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==

Skopostheory

Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu Feng 2008, 328)

Susan Bassnett (Bassnett 2002, 59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.

5.1 Transliteration with Explanation
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.

Example 1.
党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin Huikang 2005, 265-266)

Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin Huikang 2005, 264)

Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。

The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu Luya 2007, 133)

Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu Feng 2008, 324)

5.2 Literal Translation

Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follows:

Example 4. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 53)

5.3 Free Translation
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.

Example 5. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce

There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 60)

Example 6. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。

Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.

Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.

The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet.

Example 7. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu Jingzi 1958, 285)

The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao Huinan 2001,340)

In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao Huinan 2001, 340)

Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang Xianyu 2014, 56)

==VI. Conclusion==

Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.

Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory.

Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.

There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.

==References==
Bassnett, S. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. 3rd ed. (2002). London & New York: Routledge

Nida E. A. & Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. (1983) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

Nord C. ''Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis'' [M]. (2005) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Nord C. ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity — Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. (2001) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

Reiss K. ''Translation Criticism----The Potentials and Limitation'' [M]. (2004) Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社

Vermeer H. J. ''A Framework for a General Theory of Translating'' [M]. (1897) Heidelberg: Heidelberg University 海德堡大学

Vermeer H. J. ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action'' [A]. Tr. Andrew Chesterman, in The Translation Studies Reader [C], Ed. Lawrence Venuti. (2002) London & New York: Routledge

Bao Huinan 包惠南 (2001)《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司

Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1982).《红楼梦》. 北京: 人民文学出版社

Cheng Jinneng 程尽能. (2008).《旅游翻译理论与实务》.北京: 清华大学出版社

Duan Liancheng 段连城. (1990).《呼吁译界同仁都来关心对外宣传[J]》. 中国翻译出版社

Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社

Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社

Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社

Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》

Yu Jianping 于建平. (2000). 文化差异对英汉翻译中词义和语义理解的影响.《中国翻译》

Yang Xianyu 杨贤玉. (2014).《旅游英汉比较与翻译》. 湖北：武汉大学出版社

Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社

Jin Huikang 金惠康. (2005). 《跨文化旅游翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版社

--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Functional Equivalence'''=

==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==

==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong MTI 英语口译 202070080641 ==
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center>

===Abstract===
With the further deepening of economic globalization, more and more Chinese corporates are entering the global market and the English translation of corporate publicity texts works as a bridge between domestic corporates and foreign customers. As for the translations of Chinese corporate publicity texts, there are a large number of excellent translations while there are also translations with bad quality. In the practice of corporate publicity texts translation. This paper uses Nida's functional equivalence theory as the guiding theory, compares Chinese corporate publicity texts with foreign ones and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.

===Key Words===
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods

===题目===
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究

===摘要===
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了联系国内企业与国外客户的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，本文以奈达的功能对等理论作为理论指导，将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做出了深入的分析探讨。

===关键词===
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法

===I. Introduction===
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)

===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the proposers of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is the functional equivalence theory that he had put forward, a theory different from most of the earlier theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the source language and target language. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalence that takes into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that "the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text." The basic ideas of Nida's functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993）

====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)

In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)

Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)

====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source
language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.

Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)

====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)

Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.

As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.

At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)

Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.

===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)

Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.

Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.

In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:

=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers.

E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .”
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.

In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.

The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)

=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”

The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.

=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:

“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”

When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.

The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.

It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)

====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.

Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.

There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.

An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:

In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.

The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)

=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.

For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”

The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.

The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.

Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.

Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)

===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

====4.1 Explanatory Translation====
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”

====4.2 Omission in Translation====
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”

====4.3 Re-creation Translation====
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,

====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text.
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)

===V. Conclusion===
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.

===References===
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964.
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.]

--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran 202070080643 英语口译==

===Abstract===

Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators based on functional equivalence are rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt), the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature, and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.

===Key words===
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu

===题目===
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例

===摘要===
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。

===关键词===
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城

===I. Introduction===

This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence.
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of ''Cong Cong'' from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.

===II. Theoretical Framework===

====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his ''Towards a Science of Translating'', Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)

In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', in which he developed the contents of ''Towards a Science of Translation''. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)

In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).

====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====

=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence=====
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao 2016，133-134)

===III. Research on the English Translation of ''Cong Cong'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===
The earliest study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of ''Cong Cong'' in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37-38).

Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan 2017，189).

Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao 2015，104).

Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling 2015，37).

Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators===

====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing 2006，60)

At the beginning of ''Cong Cong'', a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan 2020，70)

====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019).

PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as ''Foreign Literature and Art'', ''The World of English'', and ''Journal of World Chinese Studies''. (Poetry Hall, 2019)

One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?

===V. Case Analysis===

====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?

Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?

Analysis:

In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.

Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights.

Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。

Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.

Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well.

Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了；

Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.

Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.

Analysis:

In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace.
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the perspective of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers all moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago.

Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which connote “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to specific things we see in the real world, rather than imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate.

In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version.

Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''

Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''

Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''

Analysis:

In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and convincingly.

Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；'''

Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.
'''

Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''

Analysis:

In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.

Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up, Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.

====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''

Ge：'''Haste'''

Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''

Analysis:

In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.

Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way.

Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。

Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.

Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.

Analysis:

In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original.

Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''

Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''

Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?
'''
Analysis:

In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.

In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.

The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished.

Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''

Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''

Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''

Analysis:

In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier.

Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''

Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''

Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''

Analysis:

In example five, three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation.

Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。

Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.

Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.

Analysis:

In example six, personification is used in “太阳他有脚啊”, which illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly?

Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；'''

Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''

Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''

Analysis:

In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence.

Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；'''

Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''

Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''

Analysis:

In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation of not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, Xu's seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.

===VI. Conclusion===
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style.

In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”.

What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste the prose ''Cong Cong''.

To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to.

===VII. References===

* GOLDBLATT,(1955). H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) "The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature". New York: The Columbia University Press.

* Ge Haowen. (2011). ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.

* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. (2016). "On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation". Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. 139-143.

* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).

* Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. (2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.

* Cao Dan蔡丹, Chen Wenan陈文安．(2014). 从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例 [Analyzing the English Translation of Superimposed Words From the Perspective of Phonetic Beauty—Comparison of two English Versions of “Cong Cong”]．现代语文（语言研究版） Modern Languages (Language Research Edition) (9): 159-160．

* Cen Junhao岑俊豪. (2015). 浅谈尤金·奈达的“功能对等翻译论”在译文《匆匆》中的应用 [An Analysis on the Application of Eugene Nida’s “Dynamic Equivalence” Theory in Translation Rush] Overseas English 海外英语 (10): 104-106.

* Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (1999). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 武汉: 湖北教育出版社,

* Li Xianyong李现勇, Pang Qiang逄强. (2012). 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析 [Representing the Spirit of the Original Text Based on Retaining its Form—the Aesthetic Appreciation of Zhu Chunshen’s Translation of “Cong Cong”]. Youthful Years 青春岁月 (08): 92.

* Min Xiyong闵西鸿．(2013). 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究 [Rhetorical Style Reproduction of Cong Cong in its Two English Versions]． Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） (4): 113-115.

* Yi Hongbo易红波, Xu Shanshan许姗姗. (2020). 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例. [Rhetorical Analysis of Cong Cong—Based on English Translation by Zhu Chunshen and Goldblatt]. Journal of Sichuan Minzu College 四川民族学院学报 29(04): 69-73.

* Eugene A. Nida尤金·A·奈达. (2004). 翻译科学探索 [Toward a Science of Translating]. Shanghai Foreign Language Press 上海外语出版社.

* Yang Fan杨帆.(2017). 从功能对等理论分析朱自清《匆匆》英译 [An Analysis of English Translation of Zhu Ziqing’s “Hasty” from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory] The Journal of Shandong Agriculture and Engineering University 山东农业工程学院学报 34(04): 189-190.

* Ye Naifang叶乃芳. (2008). 朱自清名篇散文的诗意 [The Poetic Beauty of Zhu Ziqing’s Proses]. Language Teaching and Research 语文教学与研究 (08): 103.

* Zhang Jing张静. (2006). 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色 [The Lyrical Characteristics of Zhu Ziqing’s Early Proses]. Modern Languages (Literature Research Edition) 现代语文(文学研究版) (04): 60.

* Zhai Zihui翟子惠, Liu Linging刘凌玲 (2015). 《匆匆》英译本中修辞风格的再现—基于功能对等理论的视角 [On the Representation of Rhetoric Style in the English Version of Rush—Based on the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Journal of Qinzhou University 钦州学院学报 30(12): 37-40.

--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 16:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646

=== '''Abstract''' ===

In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.

==='''Key words'''===

semantic translation; communicative translation; application

==='''题目'''===
语义翻译与交际翻译

==='''摘要'''===
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。

==='''关键字'''===
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用

==='''1.Introduction'''===
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " (Zhang Youyi 2007,20).

=== '''2.Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17).

At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 35).

The two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part"(Tang Jie 2016, 65).

The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17)

==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book ''About Translation'' .
Liao Qiyi gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows(Newmark 2006, 123):

===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 60).

===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text(Tang Jie 2016, 61).

===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content(Tang Jie 2016, 61).this part is too short that to make readers understood.

===='''3.4 Language Style'''====
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.5 Length'''====
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units(Tang Jie 2016, 62).

===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation(Tang Jie 2016, 63).

Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text(Liu Miqing 2008, 67).

==='''3.Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation'''===

Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 111).

According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included(Cheng Mei 1993, 62).

The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function(Che Yunfeng 2010, 57).

As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication(Newmark 2001, 62).

However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text(Newmark 2001, 63).

The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author(Newmark 2006, 68).

==='''4.Application of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===

These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type(Cheng Mei 1993, 65).

Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect(Newmark 2006,54 ).

Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions"(Newmark 2006, 98).

In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark. The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application( Newmark 2001, 63).

On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia(Zhang Peiji 1981, 52).

The author abides by this rule firmly ,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression(Xie Tianzhen 2008, 32).

===='''4.1 Application of Semantic Translation'''====
When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits(Zhang Youyi 2007, 81).
Example 1:

Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.

Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。

It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding(Zhang Youyi 2007,91).It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition.

Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 24).

In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).As for Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete(Che Yunfeng 2010, 74).

===='''4.2 Application of Communicative Translation'''====
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material(Ma Yujuan& Miao Ju 2009, 51).
Example 1:
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.

Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。

“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity(Tang Jie 2016, 66).

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel(Newmark 2001, 35).

Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation(Liao Qiyi 2004, 37).

Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text. Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events(Liao Qiyi 2004, 38).

Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed((Newmark 2006, 46).
.

If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers(Tang Jie 2016, 78).

===Reference===

Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.

Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译[ Differences Between English and Chinese and Translation of Long English Sentences]. ''中国科技翻译'' China Science and Technology Translation(4)21-22.

Che Yun 车云峰. (2010). 牛津实用英汉双解词典[Oxford Practical Dictionary of English and Chinese]. London: Oxford University Press 牛津大学出版社.

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2004）. 当代英国翻译理论[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. （2008）. 翻译基础[Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

Ma Huijuan 马会娟& Miao Ju苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论选读[A Selection of Contemporary Translation Theories]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016). 语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2008). 当代国外翻译导读[Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translations]. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (1981). 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Teaching]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Zhang Youyi 张友谊. (2007). 论彼得·纽马克的语义翻译[On Peter Newmark’s Semantic Translation Theory]. ''高等函授学报''Journal of High Correspondence(10)70-71.

Ye Zinan 叶子南. (2001). 高级英汉翻译理论[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==

<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center>

===Abstract===
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.

===Key Words===
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例

===摘要===
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。

===关键词===
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论

===Introduction===
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.

===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text.
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).

===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)

The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)

====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)

To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102)

====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)

To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)
====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91)

To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)

===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===

''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)

''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)
=====The Use of Reduplication=====
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)

Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.

Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。

The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.

Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。

The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24)

Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.

Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……

The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)

The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)

=====The Use of Adverbs=====
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)

Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.

Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。

Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)

Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.

Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。

Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)

Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.

Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子，勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”

Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)

Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.

Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。

Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35)

To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)

=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.

Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。

Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.

Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。

There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)

====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)

=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)

Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.

Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！

Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10)

Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.

Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。

Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)

=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.

Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！

Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)

Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.

Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。

Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)

The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)

===Conclusion===
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
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--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)