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20201221 cult

2020-12-28T05:33:03Z

Tang Bei: /* Tang Bei 汤蓓 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。

The traditional Silk Road starts in Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea via the Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Syria, ending in Rome, a total length of 6,440 kilometres.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, making it the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.此时的西学传入，主要以传教士和一些中国人对西方科学著作的翻译为主。

The introduction of Western learning at this time was dominated by the translation of Western scientific works by missionaries and some Chinese.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:55, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.当时时期主要特点就是整体化和近代化。近代化就是资本主义代替封建专制，这是历史的必然。这也是洋务运动试图走近代化的道理，在世界整体化的趋势下，中国比较被动的卷入。

The main characteristic of the period was holism and modernisation. Modernisation is the replacement of feudal autocracy by capitalism, which is a historical necessity. This was also the rationale behind the attempts of the Westernization Movement to modernise, with China being more passively involved in the trend towards the globalisation of the world as a whole.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 04:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。

The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.

The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。

The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。

Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.

公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders.

郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.

西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled.

中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。

Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。

Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。

During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。

The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns.

令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India.

人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression.

这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。

The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".

2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。

The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.

3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
1.尽管此次出使西域的主要目的并未完成，但是张骞充分了解了西域各地的风土人情，第一次给中国皇帝带回一了关于印度、中东以及欧洲诸国的消息。

Although the main objective of his expedition was not achieved，he documented the cultures and lifestyles of the peoples of the Western Regions，and for the first time，the Chinese emperor was informed about India，the Middle East and even some European countries.

2.郑和是中国明朝的宦官，也是一位航海探险家，他率领着满载瓷器的船队抵达了非洲和阿拉伯半岛，把长颈鹿带回了中国，同时也在东南亚航道的沿岸修建了城寨。

When Zheng He, the seafaring eunuch explorer of the Chinese Ming dynastic court, guided boats packed with porcelain to Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, he brought giraffes back to China and founded stockades along the shipping lanes of Southeast Asia.

3.“东学西渐”为欧洲启蒙运动送去了灵感，“西学东渐”也对中国和东方国家的文明产生了积极影响。

The introduction of the Chinese culture created inspiration for the Enlightenment in Europe, the Eastward spread of Western learning impacted positively on the Chinese and other Oriental civilizations.

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, Western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to Western models.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 04:57, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.

丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。

2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .

海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。

3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.

自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

1. In 139 BC, Zhang Qian traveled westward through the Xiongnu territory. He was captured and detained for over 10 years, yet he and his party escaped at last and resumed their journey toward the Darouzhi.

公元前139年，张潜西行穿越匈奴领土。他被捕并被拘留了十多年，但他和他的同伙终于逃脱了，恢复了前往大柔芝的旅程。

2. The Darouzhi had settled down in the rich and fertile Am River Valley, and their king had no wish to avenge his father’s death by attacking the Xiongnu.

达柔治人定居在肥沃的安姆河谷，他们的国王不希望通过袭击匈奴来为他的父亲报仇。

3. During the reign of Emperor Wu, Han sailboats succeeded in opening up a route to the Indian Ocean via the South China Sea, and conducted regular trade with coastal countries.

吴帝统治期间，汉帆船成功地开辟了一条经由南中国海通往印度洋的航线，并与沿海国家进行了定期贸易。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。

People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".

2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。

In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.

During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。

The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.

The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。

The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。

In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==
1.张谦被认为是中国民族英雄，并因他在使中国向更广阔的商业贸易世界开放方面所发挥的关键作用而受到崇敬。张干对西部地区的访问导致了丝绸之路的开通。

Zhang Qian is considered a Chinese National hero and revered for the key role he played in opening China to the wider world of commercial trade. Zhang Qian's missions to The Western regions led to the opening of the silk road.

2.郑和（1371-1433）生于云南昆阳的马禾（三宝），常被称为太监三宝。

Zheng He (1371-1433),born Ma He (Sanbao) in kunyang of Yunnan, was often called Eunuch Sanbao.For his meritorious service, he received the name Zheng He from Emperor Yongle.

3.郑和被任命为海军上将，控制着62艘船和27,800名船员，船队中载有一定量的黄金，丝绸和其他贵重物品。他的舰队访问了亚洲和非洲的30多个国家。

Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the 62 ships and 27,800 crewmen, which fleet placed carried a amounts of gold, silk and other precious Goods. His fleet visited more than 30 countries in Asia and Africa.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。

The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。

Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。

The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。

The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。

The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。

Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

1.丝绸之路是中国古代最著名的贸易路线。中国古代的张骞被誉为“中国走向世界第一人”，出使西域让他对西域的地理、物产、风俗有了详尽的了解，为开辟丝绸之路打下基础。但是对于西方来说，丝绸之路这样的名称也会让人产生一些误解。首先，丝绸之路不是唯一的一条路线。其次，丝绸之路的存在不仅仅只是为了交易丝绸。许多的商品包括黄金、象牙在内以及许多异域的动物和植物都有进行过交易。

The Silk Road is the most well-known trade route in ancient China. Zhang Qian in ancient China was regarded as “the first Chinese stepping to the world”. He went on a mission to the Western Regions, which made him have a detailed knowledge of geography, products and customs of the Western Regions, laying a foundation for opening up the Silk Road. However, the name to the west was somewhat misleading. Firstly, no single route was taken. Secondly, the Silk Road was not a trade route that existed solely for the purpose of trading in silk. Many other commodities were also traded, from gold and ivory to exotic animals and plants.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.丝绸之路经济带重点畅通中国经中亚、俄罗斯至欧洲(波罗的海)；中国经中亚、西亚至波斯湾、地中海；中国至东南亚、南亚、印度洋。21世纪海上丝绸之路重点方向是从中国沿海港口过南海到印度洋，延伸至欧洲；从中国沿海港口过南海到南太平洋。

The Silk Road Economic Belt focuses on bringing China, Central Asia, Russia and Europe(the Baltic)together;linking China with Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asia and West Asia; and connecting China with Southeast Asia, South Asia and Indian Ocean. The 21st- Century Maritime Silk Road is designed to go from China’s coast to Europe through the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean in one route, and from China’s coast through the South China Sea to the South Pacific in the other.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，中国传统学术的基本框架“经、史、子、集”完全被打破，许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击，有的逐渐没落，有的吸收西方学术而加以改进，到民国时期，整个西方式的学术体系架构大致成型。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines, and many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence, the basic framework of Chinese traditional academic “Jing, Shi, Zi and Ji” was completely broken, and many traditional academic was impacted by Western learning, some gradually declined, some absorbed Western Learning and improved it, until the Republic of China period, the entire western-style academic framework is largely built.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动中，洋务派虽然自我标榜“自强新政”，但由于他们都是封建传统思想的卫道者，根本无意于学习资本主义的政治经济制度，只主张学习西方技术，极力反对对封建思想和封建制度进行任何形式的变革，只是徘徊在封建王国的藩篱中自认为有所新创而洋洋得意，所以最终也没能在外国侵略者面前表现出“自强”、“中兴”。相反，在列强侵略势力的进攻下，这些封建思想的卫道者们所举行的“壮举”迅速归于失败。

In the Westernization Movement, the westernizers, though self-styled “self-improvement New Deal”, they were all defenders of the traditional feudal ideology and had no intention to learn the political and economic system of capitalism, only advocated learning Western technology, and strongly opposed any form of change to the feudal ideology and feudal system, only wandering in the fence of the feudal kingdom.In the end, it failed to show “self-improvement” and “prosperity” in front of foreign invaders because it thought it had something new. On the contrary, under the attack of the aggressive forces of the great powers, the "feat" performed by the defenders of the feudal ideology quickly collapsed.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。

The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.

2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。

China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that.

3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。

In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。

4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。

Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xu Jing 许静==
1.今人回顾历史，“张骞通西域”已是一段家喻户晓的美谈，张骞也成为历史记载的第一位出使西域的中原人。

As we look back on history, the story of Zhang Qian's visit to the Western Regions is a well-known story, and Zhang Qian became the first Chinese to travel to the Western Regions in history.

2.海上丝绸之路的极盛时期出现在元明两代，明代早期的郑和曾经七次下西洋。这种密切交流一直持续到明代中期。后来，清政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，才让海上丝绸之路失去了夺目的光彩。

The heyday of the Maritime Silk Road came during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when Zheng He made seven trips to the West in the early Ming Dynasty. This close exchange continued until the mid-Ming Dynasty. It was only later that the Qing government adopted a policy of seclusion that caused the Maritime Silk Road to lose its dazzling lustre.

3.西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

Although the Eastward Spread of Western Learning can also be used to refer to the introduction of Western ideas into China from ancient times to the present day, it is usually used to refer to the introduction of European and American ideas during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the late Qing and early Republican periods.

4.洋务运动直接继承了林则徐、魏源的“中学为体、西学为用”的学西方思想，并把这种思想付诸实践，所以洋务运动开始是顺应历史潮流的，只是在后来发展过程中，应该继续变革而不去变革，致使其以违反历史潮流而结束。

The Westernization Movement directly inherited Lin Zexu's and Wei Yuan's idea of learning from the West, and put this idea into practice, so it was in line with the historical trend at the beginning, but later in the process of development, it should have continued to change but did not do so, resulting in the end of the movement against the historical trend. --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 04:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。

Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。

The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。

Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
1. 张骞是丝绸之路的开拓者，被誉为“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”。他将中原文明传播至西域，又从西域诸国引进了汗血马、葡萄、苜蓿、石榴、胡麻等物种到中原，促进了东西方文明的交流。
Zhang Qian is a pioneer of the Silk Road, known as "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world". He spread the civilization of the Central Plains to the western regions, and introduced species such as Ferghana horse, grapes, alfalfa, pomegranates and flax to the Central Plains, which promoted the exchange of eastern and Western civilizations.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和每下西洋都带着一支威武雄壮的仪仗队，每到一国登陆时，前呼后拥，彩旗飘扬，服饰灿烂，刀光剑影，使人望而生畏，从而展示中国的富强。
Every time Zheng He went to the west, he carried a powerful and majestic guard of honor. When he landed in a country, he was surrounded by people, with colorful flags flying, splendid costumes and swords, which made people awe at the sight and showed China's prosperity.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。
The spread of Western learning to the East refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic thoughts to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties and the late Qing and early Republic of China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。
At the initiative of Zeng Guofan, China's first ship was built, the first military academy was established, the first batch of Western books was printed and translated, and the first batch of students was arranged to study in the United States.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.

In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In 138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.

In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.

The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, the Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。

The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。

The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。

In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险

Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。

In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.

4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。

In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。

Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。

After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.

3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.

4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

1.Zhang Qian made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and even to Europe. From then on, the Chinese used this channel to sell silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia. At the same time introduce gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

2.Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China, the largest number of ships and seafarers, and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea expeditions in the history of the world before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。其虽然亦可以泛指自上古以来一直到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

3.The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also generally refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to the present, it usually refers to the academic thoughts in Europe and the United States during the two periods of the late Ming and early Qing and the late Qing and the early Republic. Incoming.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的内容之一是创办新式学校，选送留学生出国深造，培养翻译人才、军事人才和科技人才。1862年在北京设立的京师同文馆，就是中国最早的官办新式学校。

One of the contents of the Westernization Movement was to establish new schools, select and send overseas students to study abroad, and train translators, military talents and scientific and technological talents. The Jingshi Tongwenguan, established in Beijing in 1862, was the earliest government-run new school in China.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:00, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。

The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.

郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。

The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.

明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.

洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。

The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。

The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。

Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.

今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.

郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.

随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T05:21:05Z

Tang Bei: /* Tang Bei 汤蓓 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T05:19:49Z

Tang Bei: /* Tang Bei 汤蓓 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。
- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 6

2020-12-21T15:00:11Z

Tang Bei: /* Definition of Domestication and Foreignization */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=

==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.

==='''Key words'''===
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches

==='''摘要'''===
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。

==='''关键词'''===
归化；异化；功能派理论

==='''Introduction'''===
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.

In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997,29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.

From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,37).

According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995,148).

Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995,21)

To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969,200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964,118)

Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964,165)

The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.

While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995,20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness.

Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies

Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.

While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===
====Skopos Theory====
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.（Tan Zaixi 1991,242）

The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.（Tan Zaixi 1991,250）

According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984,139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Theory of Translational Action====
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Text Typology====
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator.
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” .

Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation.

The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984,335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Translational Action====
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.(Reiss, 1971,19)

As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.(Reiss, 1971,20)

In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971,25)

These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.

Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers.

Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:

余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:

其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.

The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Text Typology====
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971,25)

Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on.

Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding.

On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997,38)

The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation.

Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.

Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication.

From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation.

In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

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*Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.

*Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.

*Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.

*Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.

*Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.

*Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

*Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.

*Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.

*Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.

*Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.

*Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

*Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.

*Cao Xueqin&Gao E 曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

*Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.

*Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.

*Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center>
===Abstract===
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.

===Key words===
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works

===题目===
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用

===摘要===
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。

===关键词===
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品

===Chapter1 Introduction===
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).

Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).

He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature.

Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).
=====1. Literature Review=====
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.

Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.

Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.

Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution.

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”.

Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars.

In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works.

Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.

===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102)

Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51).

Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.

Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work.

Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).

So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.

===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20).

It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25).

In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous.
=====1. Domestication=====
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.

======1.1. Annotation======
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:

E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)

Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)

In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.

There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:

E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)

Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)

“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi".

The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.

======1.2. Addition======
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.

E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).

======1.3. Omission======
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating.

E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).

======1.4. Substitution======
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:

E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)

Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)

The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart.

Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.

=====2. Foreignization=====
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.

======2.1. Transliteration======
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.

However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:

E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)

Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)

“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.

======2.2. Literal Translation======
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition.

E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)

Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)

In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.

In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)

===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20).

In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.

The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150).

However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.

Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment.

Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11).

Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201).

Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38).

However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40).

Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15).

Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007)

There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects.

Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.

The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.

===References===
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--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center>
===Abstract===

Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.

===Key Words===
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization

===题目===
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用

===摘要===
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。

===关键词===
目的论，归化，异化

===Introduction===
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.

===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.

====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.

It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.

====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.

===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.

====2.1 Domestication====
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)

Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.

====2.2 Foreignization====
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.

===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===

Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable.

====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====

If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.

“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind."
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors.

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.

====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.

“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested."
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.

===Conclusion===
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.

===References===
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.

*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.

*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.

*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.

*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome.

*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.

*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.

*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.

*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．

*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．

*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.

==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping English language and literature==
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center>

===Abstract===
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This chapter will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.

===Key words===
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation

===题目===
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究

===摘要===
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本章将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。

===关键词===
归化异化跨文化翻译

===Introduction===
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).

====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).

Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24).

In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.

====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).

Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).

In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42).

Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21).

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17).

Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169).

Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).

====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this part, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts.

Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).

As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture.

Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).

===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This part will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.

====2.1 The type of the text====
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.

Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).

Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40).

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles.

Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).

According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).

====2.2 Readers of the target language====
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation.

The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.

===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.

====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297).

As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97).

Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.

====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98).

In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).

For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.

Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.

====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.

Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104).

For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).

However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).

Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105).

For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).

Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105).

For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105).

Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304).

For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.

===Conclusion===
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.

Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text.

Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.

Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.

===References===
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.
--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center>

===Abstract===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.

===摘要===
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。

===Key words===
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy

===关键词===
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators.

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.

===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===
Chinese Xiehouyu has been studied by many scholars for its unique characteristics. This chapter discusses the origin, structure, and definition of Chinese Xiehouyu, and analyzes the importance of Chinese Xiehouyu translation.

====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called "Qiaopihua", "Qiaoyu", "Jiehouyu", "Xinueyu"(witticism),"Suojiaoyu"(abbreviation),"Yingzhuyu"(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.(Chen Wangdao 1932)

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as "Miyu"(riddle) and "Yanyu"(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".(Guo Shaoyu 1925)

The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ".(Bai Qiming 1924) He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehou"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.

However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated "Chinese Xiehouyu" into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''.

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)

====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called "Qiaopihua (witticism)", which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）

====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)

===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====
There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)

(3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)

===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===

====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）

Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively.

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)

===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that "one (head)" in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while "one (head)" was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted". For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)

Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example,
（6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away!
（7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)

In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example，
（8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.1.1 Literal Translation====
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）

====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.2.1 Free Translation====
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)

====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)

Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）

====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）

====4.2.4 Omission====
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)

==='''Conclusion'''===
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive.

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.

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--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==

<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>

===Abstract===
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms.

Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms.

The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.

===Key Words===
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation

===题目===
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化

===摘要===
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。

归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。

对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。

===关键词===
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译

===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.

====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15).

According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15).

Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).

====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).

As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118).

The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).

Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).

Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language.

People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.

===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms===
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.

====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248).

In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908).

As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal".

These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.

====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture.

For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52).

For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).

For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24).

For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).

===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.

====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)

Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!

The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive.

她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.

The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader.

运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].

The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.

等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。

Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.

Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.

一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].

This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication.

The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).

English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).

====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)

Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]".

咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].

特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...

Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms.

匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)

Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)

In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid.

主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].

For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations.

Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).

====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"

梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".

耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor".

The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.

蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)

Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".

子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)

Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".

The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.

In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).

===Conclusion===
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18).

Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension.

Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning.

Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.

===References===
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].

*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.

*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.

*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.

*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.

*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.

= '''Title Translation''' =

==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Abstract===
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements.

This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.

===Key words===
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.

===摘要===
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。

===关键词===
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。

===Chapter 1 Introduction===
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.

Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.

===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===

====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.

Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.

Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens.

The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings.

It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory.

The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.

Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.

(1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.

(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.

(3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.

People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.

(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins ").

According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.

These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as 《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function.

In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions:
1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.

2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.

3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.

4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.

5) Attract audience and increase box office income.

Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).

===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===

====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie.

For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.

Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.

The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end.

Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.

In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.

The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)

====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====

=====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role.

Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.

And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.

"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)

=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance".Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept.

As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate.

Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).

====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language.

It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.

This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".

===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===

====4.1 Literal Translation====
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious.

For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)

====4.2 Free Translation====
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.

When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)

====4.4 Amplification and Omission====
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.

So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)

====4.5 Naturalization====
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film.

Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.

Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)

====4.6 Foreignization====
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.

The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save.

Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.

Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)

===References===
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.

[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103

[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.

[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.

[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.

[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.

[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.

[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.

[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.

[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.

[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.

[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.

--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==

<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.

==='''Key words'''===

English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods

==='''摘要'''===

随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。

==='''关键词'''===

英语电影片名翻译；目的论; 翻译方法

==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.

==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===

====2.1 Film Genres ====

According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)

Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====

===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features=====

Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)

The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）

=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features =====

In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====

Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====

The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function=====

Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)

Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)

What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.3.3 Vocative Function =====

A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===

====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)

Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29).

Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).

Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)

Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）

In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)

====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====

=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====

A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）

Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)

====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====

=====4.2.1Transliteration=====

Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====

Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)

=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====

Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44)

Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====

In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)

For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====

The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====

As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles.

Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough.

I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved.

This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

*He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.

*Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html

*Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)

*Zheng Yuqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin

*Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.

*Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.

*Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.

*Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.

*Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.

*Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33.

*Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 & 129.

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论

*Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.

*Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.

*He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.

*Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/

==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.

===key words===
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods

===商标翻译研究===

===摘要===
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。

===关键字===
商标翻译；原则；方法

===1. Introduction===
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application.

First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.

====1.1 Brand and Its Name====
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

====1.2 Brand Name Translation====
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.

To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.

===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)

====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)

====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====
The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.

For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)

====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics.

Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics.

There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).

====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)

=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).

===3.The methods of brand name translation===

====3.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke快克" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), "Puma"(Biao Ma彪马), "Parker"(Pai Ke派克), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken林肯), "Canon" (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====3.2 Literal Translation====
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

====3.3 Free translation====
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou飘柔". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)

However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)

====3.4 Combinative Translation====
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai金利来", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)

====3.5 Non-translation====
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)

===4.Conclusion===
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.

From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached:

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.

Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.

===References===
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. (2012).汉英商标名称的翻译及其文化内涵. [Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation. 2(17) 68-70.

[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. 段文颇,郭茹.(2012). 商标翻译中的“三美”再现及其翻译方法探析. [Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods]. 创新创业理论研究与实践 [Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice]. 1(14) 110-112.

[3]Fade Wang.(2012). 论商标名称的翻译. [An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2(9).

[4]Jing Yang.(2018).文化差异视角下的商标名称翻译研究. [Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[5]Liu Haiyan. 刘海燕. (2013). 英文商标名称汉译技巧探析. [Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names]. 英语广场 [English Square] (Academic Research). (09) 8-11.

[6]Lu Wenchan. (2018).跨文化交际视角下的汉英商标名称翻译研究. [Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[7]Wang Hengen. 王恒恩. (2009). "三美"论与商标翻译分析. ["Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis]. 成功(教育) [Success (Education)]. (03) 274-275.

[8]Xuechuan He. (2018).汉英商标翻译研究. [The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 8(5).

[9]Zhang Shu.(2018). 从目的论角度研究品牌名称的英译. [Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.

[10]Zhang Jin. 张瑾. (2019). 中英商标名翻译的原则与方法. [Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names]. 校园英语 [Campus English]. (10) 225-226.

[11]Zhang Wenfei. 张文斐. (2020). 再议三美论下的商标翻译策略. [Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under "Three Beauty" theory]. 校园英语 [Campus English].(30)249-250.

[12]Li Jianzi. 李健子. (2018.7.11). 中国译名也能圈粉！make up for ever的“浮生若梦”引热议. [Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion]. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html

[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei. 奥美. (2017.5.2). 为什么好文案月薪10万理所应当，看看这些绝妙翻译. [Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations]. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html

[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). ["Revlon" in Chinese]. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732

History of Translation Studies 6

2020-12-21T14:58:45Z

Tang Bei: /* Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=

==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.

==='''Key words'''===
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches

==='''摘要'''===
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。

==='''关键词'''===
归化；异化；功能派理论

==='''Introduction'''===
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.

In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997,29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.

From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).

According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995,148).

Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995,21)

To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969,200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964,118)

Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964,165)

The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.

While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995,20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness.

Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies

Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.

While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===
====Skopos Theory====
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.（Tan Zaixi 1991,242）

The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.（Tan Zaixi 1991,250）

According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984,139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Theory of Translational Action====
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Text Typology====
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator.
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” .

Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation.

The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984,335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Translational Action====
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.(Reiss, 1971,19)

As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.(Reiss, 1971,20)

In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971,25)

These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.

Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers.

Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:

余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:

其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.

The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Text Typology====
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971,25)

Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on.

Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding.

On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997,38)

The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation.

Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.

Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication.

From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation.

In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

*Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.

*Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.

*Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.

*Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.

*Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.

*Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.

*Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

*Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.

*Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.

*Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.

*Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.

*Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

*Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.

*Cao Xueqin&Gao E 曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

*Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.

*Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.

*Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center>
===Abstract===
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.

===Key words===
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works

===题目===
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用

===摘要===
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。

===关键词===
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品

===Chapter1 Introduction===
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).

Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).

He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature.

Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).
=====1. Literature Review=====
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.

Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.

Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.

Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution.

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”.

Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars.

In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works.

Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.

===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102)

Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51).

Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.

Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work.

Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).

So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.

===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20).

It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25).

In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous.
=====1. Domestication=====
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.

======1.1. Annotation======
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:

E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)

Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)

In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.

There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:

E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)

Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)

“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi".

The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.

======1.2. Addition======
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.

E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).

======1.3. Omission======
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating.

E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).

======1.4. Substitution======
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:

E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)

Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)

The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart.

Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.

=====2. Foreignization=====
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.

======2.1. Transliteration======
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.

However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:

E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)

Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)

“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.

======2.2. Literal Translation======
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition.

E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)

Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)

In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.

In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)

===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20).

In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.

The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150).

However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.

Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment.

Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11).

Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201).

Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38).

However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40).

Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15).

Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007)

There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects.

Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.

The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.

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--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center>
===Abstract===

Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.

===Key Words===
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization

===题目===
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用

===摘要===
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。

===关键词===
目的论，归化，异化

===Introduction===
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.

===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.

====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.

It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.

====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.

===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.

====2.1 Domestication====
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)

Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.

====2.2 Foreignization====
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.

===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===

Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable.

====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====

If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.

“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind."
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors.

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.

====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.

“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested."
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.

===Conclusion===
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.

===References===
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.

*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.

*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.

*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.

*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome.

*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.

*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.

*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.

*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．

*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．

*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.

==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping English language and literature==
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center>

===Abstract===
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This chapter will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.

===Key words===
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation

===题目===
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究

===摘要===
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本章将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。

===关键词===
归化异化跨文化翻译

===Introduction===
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).

====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).

Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24).

In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.

====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).

Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).

In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42).

Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21).

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17).

Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169).

Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).

====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this part, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts.

Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).

As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture.

Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).

===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This part will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.

====2.1 The type of the text====
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.

Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).

Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40).

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles.

Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).

According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).

====2.2 Readers of the target language====
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation.

The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.

===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.

====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297).

As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97).

Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.

====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98).

In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).

For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.

Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.

====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.

Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104).

For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).

However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).

Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105).

For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).

Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105).

For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105).

Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304).

For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.

===Conclusion===
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.

Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text.

Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.

Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.

===References===
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.
--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center>

===Abstract===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.

===摘要===
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。

===Key words===
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy

===关键词===
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators.

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.

===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===
Chinese Xiehouyu has been studied by many scholars for its unique characteristics. This chapter discusses the origin, structure, and definition of Chinese Xiehouyu, and analyzes the importance of Chinese Xiehouyu translation.

====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called "Qiaopihua", "Qiaoyu", "Jiehouyu", "Xinueyu"(witticism),"Suojiaoyu"(abbreviation),"Yingzhuyu"(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.(Chen Wangdao 1932)

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as "Miyu"(riddle) and "Yanyu"(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".(Guo Shaoyu 1925)

The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ".(Bai Qiming 1924) He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehou"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.

However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated "Chinese Xiehouyu" into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''.

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)

====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called "Qiaopihua (witticism)", which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）

====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)

===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====
There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)

(3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)

===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===

====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）

Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively.

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)

===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that "one (head)" in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while "one (head)" was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted". For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)

Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example,
（6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away!
（7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)

In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example，
（8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.1.1 Literal Translation====
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）

====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.2.1 Free Translation====
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)

====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)

Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）

====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）

====4.2.4 Omission====
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)

==='''Conclusion'''===
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive.

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.

==='''Reference'''===

Bai Qiming. 白启明. (1924). 采辑歌谣所宜兼收的歇后语. [Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs]. 北京：歌谣周刊[Beijing: Popular Ballads Weekly].

Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). ''实用文化翻译学''.[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.

Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.

Chen Wangdao. 陈望道.(1932). ''修辞学发凡''.[The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric]. 上海：复旦大学出版社[Shanghai: Fudan University Press].

Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). ''汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践''.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.

Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). ''汉语歇后语英译研究''.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.

Guo Shaoyu. 郭绍虞.(1925). ''谚语的研究''.[A Study of Proverbs]. 北京：商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.

Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). ''跨文化交际翻译续编''.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.

John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.

Ling Li 凌利.(2004). ''歇后语词典''.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.

Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). ''英汉对比研究''.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]

Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究.[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.

Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.

Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.

Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.

Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).''中国歇后语大词典''.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.

Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.

Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.

Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.

Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). ''《儒林外史》英译本''.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]

--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==

<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>

===Abstract===
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms.

Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms.

The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.

===Key Words===
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation

===题目===
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化

===摘要===
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。

归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。

对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。

===关键词===
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译

===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.

====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15).

According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15).

Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).

====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).

As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118).

The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).

Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).

Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language.

People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.

===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms===
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.

====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248).

In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908).

As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal".

These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.

====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture.

For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52).

For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).

For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24).

For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).

===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.

====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)

Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!

The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive.

她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.

The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader.

运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].

The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.

等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。

Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.

Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.

一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].

This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication.

The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).

English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).

====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)

Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]".

咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].

特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...

Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms.

匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)

Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)

In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid.

主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].

For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations.

Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).

====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"

梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".

耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor".

The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.

蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)

Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".

子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)

Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".

The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.

In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).

===Conclusion===
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18).

Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension.

Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning.

Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.

===References===
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].

*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.

*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.

*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.

*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.

*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.

= '''Title Translation''' =

==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Abstract===
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements.

This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.

===Key words===
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.

===摘要===
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。

===关键词===
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。

===Chapter 1 Introduction===
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.

Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.

===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===

====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.

Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.

Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens.

The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings.

It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory.

The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.

Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.

(1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.

(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.

(3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.

People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.

(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins ").

According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.

These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as 《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function.

In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions:
1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.

2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.

3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.

4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.

5) Attract audience and increase box office income.

Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).

===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===

====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie.

For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.

Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.

The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end.

Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.

In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.

The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)

====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====

=====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role.

Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.

And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.

"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)

=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance".Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept.

As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate.

Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).

====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language.

It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.

This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".

===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===

====4.1 Literal Translation====
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious.

For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)

====4.2 Free Translation====
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.

When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)

====4.4 Amplification and Omission====
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.

So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)

====4.5 Naturalization====
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film.

Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.

Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)

====4.6 Foreignization====
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.

The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save.

Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.

Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)

===References===
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.

[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103

[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.

[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.

[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.

[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.

[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.

[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.

[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.

[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.

[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.

[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.

--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==

<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.

==='''Key words'''===

English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods

==='''摘要'''===

随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。

==='''关键词'''===

英语电影片名翻译；目的论; 翻译方法

==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.

==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===

====2.1 Film Genres ====

According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)

Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====

===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features=====

Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)

The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）

=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features =====

In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====

Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====

The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong,2006,66-68)

=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function=====

Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)

Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)

What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.3.3 Vocative Function =====

A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===

====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)

Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29).

Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).

Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)

Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）

In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)

====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====

=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====

A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）

Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)

====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====

=====4.2.1Transliteration=====

Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====

Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)

=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====

Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44)

Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====

In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)

For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====

The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====

As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles.

Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough.

I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved.

This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

*He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.

*Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html

*Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)

*Zheng Yuqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin

*Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.

*Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.

*Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.

*Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-51.

*Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.

*Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33.

*Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 & 129.

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论

*Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.

*Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.

*He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.

*Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/

==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.

===key words===
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods

===商标翻译研究===

===摘要===
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。

===关键字===
商标翻译；原则；方法

===1. Introduction===
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application.

First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.

====1.1 Brand and Its Name====
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

====1.2 Brand Name Translation====
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.

To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.

===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)

====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)

====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====
The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.

For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)

====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics.

Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics.

There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).

====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)

=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).

===3.The methods of brand name translation===

====3.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke快克" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), "Puma"(Biao Ma彪马), "Parker"(Pai Ke派克), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken林肯), "Canon" (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====3.2 Literal Translation====
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

====3.3 Free translation====
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou飘柔". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)

However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)

====3.4 Combinative Translation====
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai金利来", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)

====3.5 Non-translation====
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)

===4.Conclusion===
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.

From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached:

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.

Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.

===References===
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. (2012).汉英商标名称的翻译及其文化内涵. [Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation. 2(17) 68-70.

[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. 段文颇,郭茹.(2012). 商标翻译中的“三美”再现及其翻译方法探析. [Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods]. 创新创业理论研究与实践 [Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice]. 1(14) 110-112.

[3]Fade Wang.(2012). 论商标名称的翻译. [An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2(9).

[4]Jing Yang.(2018).文化差异视角下的商标名称翻译研究. [Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[5]Liu Haiyan. 刘海燕. (2013). 英文商标名称汉译技巧探析. [Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names]. 英语广场 [English Square] (Academic Research). (09) 8-11.

[6]Lu Wenchan. (2018).跨文化交际视角下的汉英商标名称翻译研究. [Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[7]Wang Hengen. 王恒恩. (2009). "三美"论与商标翻译分析. ["Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis]. 成功(教育) [Success (Education)]. (03) 274-275.

[8]Xuechuan He. (2018).汉英商标翻译研究. [The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 8(5).

[9]Zhang Shu.(2018). 从目的论角度研究品牌名称的英译. [Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.

[10]Zhang Jin. 张瑾. (2019). 中英商标名翻译的原则与方法. [Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names]. 校园英语 [Campus English]. (10) 225-226.

[11]Zhang Wenfei. 张文斐. (2020). 再议三美论下的商标翻译策略. [Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under "Three Beauty" theory]. 校园英语 [Campus English].(30)249-250.

[12]Li Jianzi. 李健子. (2018.7.11). 中国译名也能圈粉！make up for ever的“浮生若梦”引热议. [Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion]. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html

[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei. 奥美. (2017.5.2). 为什么好文案月薪10万理所应当，看看这些绝妙翻译. [Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations]. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html

[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). ["Revlon" in Chinese]. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732

20201215 cultexam 3

2020-12-21T14:43:30Z

Tang Bei: /* Ancient Chinese Education */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.

--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)

[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005.

4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.

6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.

3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs

5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.

2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.

3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.

4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.

5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.

6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1.When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==

===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==
====Zheng He's Voyages ====

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)

====Terms and Expressions====

''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain 主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River 秦淮河

the first line of defense 第一防线

trench 天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival 花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interests 名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How to describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar 正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===

[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====The History of Cheongsam====

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)

====1.2 History and Technology====

The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html

Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618==
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

====1.The origin of giant pandas=====
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

====3.The diet features of giant pandas====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

=====Terms and expressions====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

====Questions====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===Answers===
1.Ailuaractos

2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow

3.No,they like humid enviornment.

4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==
====Legalism====

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

20201215 cultexam 3

2020-12-21T14:36:41Z

Tang Bei: /* References */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.

--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)

[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005.

4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.

6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

==Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译==
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.

3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs

5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.

2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.

3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.

4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.

5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.

6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1.When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==

===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==
====Zheng He's Voyages ====

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)

====Terms and Expressions====

''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain 主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River 秦淮河

the first line of defense 第一防线

trench 天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival 花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interests 名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How to describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar 正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===

[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====The History of Cheongsam====

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)

====1.2 History and Technology====

The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014, website)
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website,2)

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden website, 2)

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017, website)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova (2017). A Brief history of folding screens. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html

Emmaantiques (2014). Asian Furniture Online. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

Cooper, Dan (1999). "Folding Grandeur". Old House Interiors. 5 (1): 30–36.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618==
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

====1.The origin of giant pandas=====
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

====3.The diet features of giant pandas====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

=====Terms and expressions====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

====Questions====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===Answers===
1.Ailuaractos

2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow

3.No,they like humid enviornment.

4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==
====Legalism====

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

20201221 trans

2020-12-21T06:00:20Z

Tang Bei: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
通用类别不是杂文倾向于混合的唯一方面；它们的特征通常是音调，风格和声音的突然变化，从一连串的窃窃私语转变为优雅，古典的谈话。与胡适（1918）的杂文思想是对报纸其他页面文章的“回应”一样，杂文仍然是大多数报纸的特色，几乎总是以直接引用作者读过或听过的东西的形式包含“箔”。除了创建微观的社会对话外，在作者和“箔纸”两种声音之间进行的这种划分还使样式和声音产生了令人头晕目眩的冲突，使句法，语法以及思想不可能包含在一个文本中。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.

看了这位发言者的评论，还有一件事让我感到疑惑。按照这个说法，"从接下来的两年（指今明两年）的纪律和整改来看，会有更多的新挑战、新问题，文艺刊物应该对稳定人心、增强信心有所帮助，而不是消磨人民的意志"。看了这么多报纸，我还是第一次看到这个 "稳定民心 "的命题。如果说要稳定民心，那就必须从民心不稳的假设出发。至于民心不稳的原因，又回到了这两年的 "纪律整顿和新挑战、新问题 "上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

文学报《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应他们的请求。写到这里，我突然觉得，这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字是无法叙述完的。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道，指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写着：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“古物”了，早已没有了往日的繁华与辉煌。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 04:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中将“土地”具体化为一个先验隐喻，这只能说明作者对中国现代性的复杂性缺乏深刻的历史见解。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化的困境和矛盾作为永久固定的知识和文化景观。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判也表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国的后社会主义社会现实变得更加复杂和苛刻，文化形态更加多样化和无组织化，任何基于前现代社会关系和规范的明确的道德解决方案(假定一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程所带来的文化危机感。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 06:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
所以，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所降临的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
张艺谋在再现中国乡村历史时所面临的道德困境，与寻根作家所面临的困境相似:在追寻“中国性”实质的同时，也发现了中国社会和文化传统中令人不悦一面。这种道德困境在小说的叙事中也有反映。奇幻事件在解构历史表象的现实主义范式的同时，也创造了一幅具有异域风情的乡村生活画面。正如王大卫指出的那样，怀旧的对象也很容易与异国情调联系在一起(1993,109)。
因此，如果我们在张大千的小说中找到某种物质来支持他超然而空洞的“土地”隐喻，那么这种“物质”仍然不够具有吸引力和吸引力。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan

==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.

随着战线的频繁重新划分和日益模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出狂野的搏击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的影子拳击的特点。但是，文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者说，论断）角色，以适当的多情、不和谐而又自信的姿态迎接挑战。因此，事实证明，它最能表达后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：近来，论文以其新奇的分支淹没了公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治论文外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络论文等。但正是有了上世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文形式最惊人的新奇、灵巧和魄力。
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

由于战线不断被重新划定，并变得越来越模糊，这一轮的文化论战呈现出一种狂野的猛击、毫无保留的摔跤和难以捉摸的太极拳的特点。但文章的形式忠实于它的论文（或者，也可以说是分析性的）的作用，这篇文章以其多变、不和谐和自信的姿态迎接了挑战。因此，它最能表现后现代世界的混乱、断裂和琐事。我们不需要深入研究就能发现这一点：最近，论文以其新奇的分支充斥着公共媒体：除了常见的文学和政治文章外，还出现了理财论文、休闲论文、摄影论文、网络随笔等等。但是，正是有了20世纪90年代的文化论战，读者才见证了论文最令人惊叹的新奇、灵巧和神韵式。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 03:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

张承志被一些人赞誉为一本书拯救了整个二十世纪的中国写作，他乘着《心灵史》（《灵魂史》，1992年）大受欢迎的顺风，似乎又回到了公共论坛，他的话语权又恢复了，他的 "神圣 "使命感又重新被唤醒。乍一看，这似乎不是那个完成《心灵史》后被自己升华到的精神境界所折服，向读者诚恳恳地恳求："从今以后，不再有这个'我'了 "的张承志。请把我从你们的记忆中驱逐出去。......我甚至已经把自己吓了一跳，有了这本书，我可以让自己如此戛然而止。"[张承志，“心灵史”（广州：花城出版社，1991）311。但是，张承志在此后与读者的持续对话中，是否曾退出公共论坛，放逐自己的声音？--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

他特别针对著名的回族史学家杨怀忠，他对回族与满汉统治者合作的穆纳菲尔斯的调查，在张先生看来，已经内化了权力知识联盟的统治密码。尽管张先生对此评价优良，研究也很广泛，但他斥责杨先生的冷漠立场。

一方面，你试图批判性地反思你自己和你的传统，另一方面，你又想把对人类灵魂的压抑和侵犯公之于众。你所研究的那种课题，怎么可能还是同样的历史学？如果说杨振宁还没有摆脱虚伪的民族匿名感，那么，面对历史上对胡人的不公正待遇，张先生也不会让自己轻松。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.
这并不是为了发泄自己的负罪感而偶尔爆发的情感。多年的学术研究、田野工作和研究，使自己的民族记忆和情感同理心不那么淡薄，这是一种真诚的自责。与新学者对“无兴趣”和中立的追求不同，张勇敢地选择了种族主义和社会激进主义的方向:推倒“客观”历史竖起的柱子，穿透政治和宗教恐惧的墙壁，揭开被掩埋的种族压迫和暴力的真相。有人可能会质疑张对历史学术的看法过于情绪化和偏颇，从而冒着将史学贬低为个人疑虑的风险。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

在一个道德混乱的年代，这难道不会使他成为一个孤独的追求道德完美的人吗？张的忠告似乎与王小明对于自我导向的道德正义的定义完全吻合。作为20世纪80年代知识分子直接参与政治的一种选择，王强调了终极关怀的个人品质，认为: “(1)你只能从个人经验中寻找终极价值; (2)你找到的是你自己对终极价值的解释，而不是终极价值本身。”张似乎和那些孤独的寻找者一样，重视自我激励，追求缺失的道德美德，尽管这种追求具有超越性和远见性。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

但他的作品某个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 05:03, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?这个问题亚历山大，马丁.沃尔斯勒和新民刘曾提出过。现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

同样，“ zawen”作家与公开的庄严语调保持距离，其唯一目的是使他们的握柄更易于胃口，声音更易听见。张成志暂时退出宗教隔离是另一个例子，因为在短暂的独占统治之后，他以更坚定的信念和更广泛的议程再次进入公共领域。根据王朋的讨论，王安忆的案子可能不那么清楚。可以肯定的是，她似乎已经很好地适应了商品化的新的消费主义社会。然而，很明显，她对杂文作家情感的运用是认真的。

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

6 （周 1929:180-181）

7 (Zhou 1923).

7 （周 1923）

8 (The Family in 1951)

8 （《家》1952）

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

9 （1982 一篇叙文）

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

10 （随想录）1980年代的论文更具自传性，涉及当今社会的文学和问题。由于本文的性质，我们可以通过他的“随机思想”来了解巴金的内心世界。

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

11（随想录 1978-86，见巴金 1988）

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

2，巴金通过狗表达了失去妻子的痛苦。在论文结尾之前，Ba Jin痛苦地回忆起他的妻子，他在那十年中病倒了去世。在早些时候出现在该系列中的文章“在纪念下山中”中，他承认对她的死感到内severe，这使他陷入了梦中。他声称，他们因他而拒绝了她的治疗。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

4，用这种方式处理“文化大革命”的重要性。如果将这篇文章与1979年的其他文章进行比较，那它和其他跟风批判“文化大革命”的文章无异。但是，也有像冰心这样的作家为了制造作品连贯的假象，她在文化大革命不久就使用了与以前相似的书名，以此否认“文化大革命”。王蒙以幽默的方式应对“文化大革命”-“巴金”的文章因无情和坦白独树一帜。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)